1973 Britannica Yearbook Of Science And The Future

Benton, Publisher

Chicago Toronto London
Geneva Sydney Tokyo Manila
Johannesburg

PaBLISREBS,

Film Colony,
CHAURA Rasta.

1973

Britannica
Yearbook
of Science
and

the Future

EDITOR IN CHIEF

Michel Silva

EDITOR

□avid Calhoun

EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS
Howard Lewis, Director, Office of Information.
National Academy of Sciences— National Academy
of Engineering— National Research Council

Herbert York, Professor of Physics, Dean
of Graduate Studies and Research, University
of California, San Diego

STAFF EDITORS

Sharon Barton, Judy Booth, Daphne Daume,

Dave Etter, Mary Alice Molloy

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
William Barry Furlong, Richard York
ART DIRECTOR
Will Gallagher

ASSOCIATE ART DIRECTOR
Cynthia Peterson

SENIOR PICTURE EDITOR
Holly Harrington
PICTURE EDITOR
Helen Goldberg

EXECUTIVE VICE-PRESIDENT, EDITORIAL

Howard L. Goodkind

DESIGN SUPERVISOR
Ron Villani

DESIGNER
Carolyn Amundson

LAYOUT ARTIST
Richard Batchelor

ART PRODUCTION
Richard Heinke

EDITORIAL PRODUCTION MANAGER

J. Thomas Beatty

PRODUCTION COORDINATOR

Lorene Lawson

PRODUCTION STAFF

John Atkinson, Barbara W. Cleary,

Susan Recknagal

COPY CONTROL

Felicitfe Buhl, Supervisor; Mary K. Finley,

Gurtha McDonald, Shirley Richardson

INDEX

Frances E. Latham, Supervisor; Virginia Palmer,
Assistant Supervisor: Gladys Berman, Grace R. Lord

ASSIGNMENTS
Maty Hunt
SECRETARY
Judith Lacey Lukens

COPYRIGHT © 1972 BY ENCYCLOP7EDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

Copyright Under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved Under

Pan American And Universal Copyright Conventions By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Library of Congress Catalogue Number: 69-12349 Standard Book Number: 0-85229-276-7

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

CTrademark Reg. U.S. Pat. OH.) Printed in U.SJL

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
The Britannica Yearbook of Science and the Future
Is published vrlth the editorial advice of the faculties of
the University of Chicago

Editorial

Advisory

Board

Louis J. Battan, a past president of the American
Meteorological Society, is professor of
atmospheric sciences and associate director of
the Institute of Atmospheric Physics at the
University of Arizona.

George W. Beadle, president emeritus and
distinguished service professor of biology at the
University of Chicago, was awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1958 for his achievements in genetics.

Edward U. Condon, professor emeritus of physics
at the University of Colorado, is a member of the
National Academy of Sciences and a past
president of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.

Robert J. Glaser, vice-president of the
Commonwealth Fund of New York, was formerly
vice-president for medical affairs, professor of
medicine, and dean of the School of Medicine at
Stanford University.

Jesse L. Greenstein, a member of the National
Academy of Sciences, is professor of astrophysics
and executive officer for astronomy at the
California Institute of Technology and on the
staff of the Hale Observatories.

Joshua Lederberg, professor of genetics and
biology and chairman of the department of
genetics at the Stanford University School of
Medicine, received the Nobel Prize in 1958 for his
work in genetics.

Frank Press is chairman of the department of earth
and planetary sciences at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and on the Lunar and
Planetary Missions Board for the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Froelich Rainey, a past president of the American
Association of Museums, is professor of
anthropology and director of The University
Museum at the University of Pennsylvania.

Frederick E. Terman, a founding member of the
National Academy of Engineering, is
vice-president and provost emeritus of Stanford
University as v/ell as president of the Southern
Methodist University Foundation for Science
and Engineering.

Dael Wolfle, former executive officer of the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, is professor of public affairs at the
University of Washington and a member of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

hrough Science and Technology

© Karih. Onowo

The world is cool, peaceful, green. Birds sing in
the trees. They seem to answer man's call. For
there he is a friend. Man and his environment are
in harmony. Nature fulfills his material needs and
he does not abuse it. If man is unhappy, he does
not know it or show it.

Those words might be said to describe the life of
a society of just 25 people whose existence became
known to us only in 1971. And if ignorance is bliss,
is it folly to be wise? For perhaps centuries, their
discoverers tell us. the Tasaday tribe has been iso-
lated from the rest of the world in a dense ram
forest in the Philippines. There, the Tasaday are
still living in caves like our primitive ancestor. Stone
Age man. Even the discovery in 1902 of a group of
similar people in the Celebes does not equal the
importance of the Tasaday in adding to man’s
knowledge of his distant past. (The Celebes group,
called Toalas, had begun giving up caves 30 years
before they became known to the outside world.)

As the description suggests, the Tasaday live a
serene life. As far as we know, they have no natural
enemies. They are food gatherers, rather than food
growers, and apparently have to spend as little as
three hours a day providing themselves with food
that is in abundance and close by. The rest of the
day the Tasaday is usually free to do as he pleases.

He and his mate play with their children and teach
“em abo„, ,ha iung.a, O, ,ha TasaJ.y ™n
make music. Or swing on vines or climb trees. U
just sit and look contentedly into the valleys of his

^TlirdiscovSy of a unique people is of scientific
sign'Lance. an event of exciting cf.mens.ons^o
anthropologists. The layman, too. must celebra
this find with the scientist We ^ ^

DKdia Britannica share in the concern felt all over
the world for the ultimate fate of a Stone ^9® P P

culture will not be destroyed. The Foundation,
which assists all minority groups in Philippines,
is a good, indeed an excellent, example of govern
men? and the private sector working tope her or
the greater good of the people. It has a s"^P'®

‘Hg prtnSple. As Elizalde told Britannica’s ed. ors.

-We are for choice, the people s
Assistance to the minority P^°P'®"
with acceptance of their right to be d'«erent say
Elizalde "The minorities themselves must retain

the option of preserving their traditional way of hfe

or!i??hey so Sesire. changing it at the pace and in

the direction they choose.'

And this happily applies to the Ta^^ay^A^regy
the Philippine government has set ’

acres of government land ® Preserve
Tasaday and their neighbors, the Manobo B1 •
will prevent encroachments by logger .
and other industrial segments of ^

We are grateful to the Philippine 9°''.®^"'^®"* f
to the PANAMIN Foundation for making the st ry
about the Tasaday possible in this
Britannica Yearbook of Science
The fascinating report that begins on page 50 was

LsgSS b, Llers o,

them anthropologists. As Polisher ^ ^ratefu for
nica. concerned about the future, 1 ^m grateful for
the foresight shown by the government of the peo-
ple of the Philippines in dealing so sensib y

such a challenging matter. ■ „

1 suppose like most men of this rampaging so-
ciety ■ rather envy the Tasaday the choice they
Sto make. 1 wonder, if we all had it to do our-

This rare photograph shows members of the Tasaday tribe outside their caves

selves, to make the choice consciously, whether we
would elect the tranquil existence of a Tasaday rain
forest or exposure to the rest of the world that
seems full of so much stress and tension.

Can't we on our part seek to use the power
through our own science and technology to make
our world into our own version of a tranquil rain
forest, where the world is cool, peaceful, and
green, where birds sing in the trees, answering
man's call?

Every year in the Science Yearbook we see proof
in developing science and technology that man has
the skills to shape his life as he wants it. One can
see that from the variety of things reported in this
year's edition. We know, for example, that we are
nearing the time when babies can be conceived in
test tubes (page 398); that crimes can be solved
scientifically (page 374). We are just beginning to
learn about the scientific developments in the
People's Republic of China and the progress of its
800,000,000 citizens, v/hose cultural, scientific, and
technological advancements have largely been a
matter of guesswork up to now (page 30). We are
learning more and more about nuclear fusion as a
possible new and endless source of power that will
not pollute the environment (page 110). We know
now that the presence of mercury, lead, and cad-
mium in our systems and our environment (page

360) is as much a danger to us as it is to the animals
of the earth, including those especially that are in
imminent danger of extinction (page 10).

It's all there, really, the ability, the knowledge, the
technology that can make our present and our
future a comparative paradise.

With nature's surrender to man, with our ability
to destroy everything on earth with the push of a
button, we now face the necessity of conscious
action. It is a time that T George Harris of Psychol-
ogy Today has termed the "Age of Conscious Ac-
tion." Those things that we have since the begin-
ning of time left to nature, accident, tradition, now
must be faced as conscious acts. Our society has
finally reached the point that our own technology
is forcing us to learn how to face up to the conse-
quences of technology. Where are the teachers?
We are prepared to be the taught. What are the next
steps? Where do v/e go from here? This 1973 Bri-
tannica Yearbook of Science and the Future con-
tains some of the guideposts.

PUBUSHER

Feature Articles

The Science Year
in Review

Gateway
to the
Future

I Index

10 Species in Peril by William G. Conway

We have sped up the process that leads to the extinction
of species of animals. Since the industrial revolution,
animal species have been disappearing at an alarming
rate, and more and more are now on the list of those
facing extinction today.

30 Science in China by C. H. Geoffrey Oldham

What is the state of science and technology in China?
How does it really compare with the rest of the world,
particularly the West? As the Western world moves to-
ward an open relationship with 800,000,000 Chinese,
Westerners are beginning to unlock the answers to what
has been for years a matter of educated guesswork.

50 The Tasaday: Stone Age Tribe of Mindanao

Isolated for centuries from the outside world, this small
band of people still living in caves much like primitive
man has excited scientists and iaymen alike. Since the
1971 discovery, the Phiiippine government has used
great foresight in protecting the Tasaday from rapid ac-
culturation until they have had time to make an Intel-
ligent choice for themselves about their own future.

66 The Psychic Boom by Samuel Moffat

While real science and technoiogy boom along, people
are more and more turning to the sometimes soothing
world of everything from astrology to "biofeedback.”
The question is whether any of these "psychic” phe-
nomena are scientifically valid.

84 Cancer Under Attack by Ronald Kotulak

Each day brings the scientific community closer to an
understanding of the malignant process of cancer, which
kills more than 300,000 people annually throughout the
United States. The chances of conquering the dread dis-
ease seem realistically closer now than ever before.

98 Mechanical Servants for Mankind by John McCarthy
Man has long dreamed at creating a robot that will do
his bidding. This has usually been considered a far-
fetched vision of science fiction writers, but today new
advances in computer technology are bringing the fan-
tasy closer to reality.

110 Nuclear Fusion: Power Source ot the Future?
by Harold P. Forth

Today’s sources of electrical power, including nuclear
fission plants, have the serious drawbacks of polluting
the environment, growing shortages, and high cost. If
the nuclear reaction can be harnessed, as the nuclear
fission reaction once was, if will provide a clean, eco-
nomic, and almost inexhaustible new source of power.

128 Nutrition and the American Diet by David Perlman
More than half the food we eat does no good at all be-
cause it lacks nutrients essential to good health. What's
worse, many of the currently popular diets compound
the problem by leaving out foods vifal fo our body's
well-being.

144 Will the U.S. Go Metric? by Lewis M. Branscomb

The United States is one of the few countries left that
still measure things by inches, quarts, and miles. Will
the time come when Americans see things in meters,
liters, and kilometers?

344 Art and Technology by Jack W. Burnham

The traditional gap between art and science is being
bridged by artists who not only use the technology of
modern science to create their works but often incor-
porate that very technology in the art object itself.

360 The Notorious Trio: Mercury, Lead, and Cadmium

by John F. Henahan

These three elements that have been of such help to
man now pose a serious threat to life because of their
heavy concentrations in the environment.

374 Crime Fighters in the Laboratory

by Alexander Joseph

Sam Spade and Mickey Splllane belong to nostalgia now
what with the arsenal of weapons modern science and
technology has placed at the disposal of today's plain-
clothes cops and other law enforcement officials. Crime
defection no ionger has fo reiy on the briliiant deduc-
tions of a Sherlock Holmes. It can be the infallible con-
clusion of a computer.

398 Test-Tube Babies by William K. Stuckey

The day when babies can be conceived in lest tubes Is
near. Whether such means of conception actually will
be used is a question that arouses great controversy.

410 The Nobel Science Prizes by William Kirk

No scientific award Is more prestigious than the Nobel
Prize. But critics charge officials who control the famous
prize have failed to recognize many significant achieve-
ments.

424 Too Many Scientists? by Charles V. Kidd

For years the cry throughout the world was for more
scientists and engineers. Now, there are signs of a sur-
plus, especially in the United States. This may be a
permanent trend or just a short-term adjustment.

158

390 The World’s Largest Nuclear Prober
by Howard J. Lewis

In their long search fo discover the nature of the mate-
rial world, scientists have devised increasingly powerful

machines. The U.S. National Accelerator Laboratory con- ^

fains the world's most powerful particle accelerator, one _ ' ’

that raises protons fo an energy level of 200 billion i j.-

electron volts. T; V. ^ '

433

Contributors to
the Science Year
in Review

Joseph Ashbrook Astronomy. Editor, Sky and
Telescope, Cambridge, Mass.

William J. Bailey Chemistry: Structural Chemistry.
Research Professor of Chemistry, University
of Maryland, College Park.

Jeremy E. Baptist Molecular Biology: Biophysics.
Assistant Professor of Radiation Biophysics,
University of Kansas, Lawrence.

Louis J. Battan Atmospheric Sciences. Professor
of Atmospheric Sciences and Associate Director
of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics,

University of Arizona, Tucson.

Harold Borko Information Science and
Technology. Professor in the School of Library
Service, University of California, Los Angeles.
George M. Briggs Foods and Nutrition. Professor
of Nutrition, University of California, Berkeley.

H. Keith H. Brodie Medicine: Psychiatry.

Assistant Professor of Psychiatry. Stanford
University, Stanford, Calif.

D. Allan Bromley Physics: Nuclear Physics.
Professor and Chairman. Department of Physics,
and Director, A. W. Wright Nuclear Structure
Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
Morris E. Chafetz Medicine: Alcoholism.

Director, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism, Bethesda. Md.

Walter Clark Photography. Formerly head of the
Applied Photography Division. Research
Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Co.. Rochester. N.Y.
Robert A. Davidson Chemistry: Chemical
Synthesis. Research Fellow. Department of
Chemistry. Pennsylvania State University.
University Park.

John M. Dennison Earth Sciences: Geology and
Geochemistry. Professor and Chairman.
Department of Geology, University of North
Carolina. Chapel Hill.

F. C. Durant III Astronautics and Space
Exploration: Earth Satellites. Assistant Director
(Astronautics), National Air and Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.

Robert G. Eagon Microbiology, Professor of
Microbiology. University of Georgia, Athens.
Edward H. Estes, Jr. Medicine: Paramedical
Personnel. Professor and Chairman. Department
of Community Health Sciences. Duke University.
Durham. N. C.

Joseph Gies Architecture and Building
Engineering. Senior Editor/Technology,
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, III.

Nathaniel Grossman Mathematics. Associate
Professor of Mathematics, University of California,
Los Angeles.

John Healy Earth Sciences: Geophysics.
Geophysicist, National Center for Earthquake
Research. U.S. Geological Survey. Menlo Park,
Calif.

!_ A. Heindl Earth Sciences: Hydrology.

Executive Secretary, U.S. National Committee for
the International Hydrological Decade. National
Academy of Sciences — National Research Council,
Washington. D.C.

Robert L. Hill Molecular Biology: Biochemistry.
Professor of Biochemistry, Duke University.
Durham. N.C.

Thomas H. Hunter Medicine: Death and Dying.
Professor of Medicine and Ov/en R. Cheatham
Professor of Science. University of Virginia.
Charlottesville.

Daniel F. Johnson Behavioral Sciences:
Psychology. Associate Professor of Psychology.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Blacksburg. Va

Richard S. Johnston Astronautics and Space
Exploration: Manned Space Exploration. Deputy

Director, Medical Research and Operations, NASA
Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Tex.

Lou Joseph Dentistry. Assistant Director, Bureau
of Public Information, American Dental
Association, Chicago, III.

Walter S. Koski Chemistry: Chemical Dynamics.
Professor of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.

Jerry Lama Medicine: Venerea! Disease. Venereal
Disease Consultant, Institute for Sex Education,
Chicago, III.

John H. Lannan The Science Year in Review: A
Perspective. Special Assistant, Office of Science
and Technology, Executive Office of the President.
Washington, D.C.

Joshua Lederberg Molecular Biology: Genetics.
Professor of Genetics, Stanford University,
Stanford, Calif.

John G. Lepp Zoology. President, Marion County
Technical Institute, Marion, Ohio.

Howard .J. Lewis Science, General. Director,
Office of Information, National Academy of
Sciences— National Academy of Engineering-
National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Norman Metzger Chemistry: Applied Chemistry.
Manager, News Service, American Chemical
Society, Washington, D.C.

Rice Odell Environmental Sciences. Editor,

CF Letter, the Conservation Foundation,
Washington, D.C.

Alan J. Perils Computers. Eugene Higgins
Professor of Computer Science, Yale University,
New Haven, Conn.

Willard J. Pierson, Jr. Marine Sciences. Professor
of Oceanography, New York University.

New York, N.Y.

Froelich Rainey Archaeology. Professor of
Anthropology and Director of the University

Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Robert B. Rathbone Agriculture. Director,
Information Division, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.

Peter H. Raven Botany. Director, Missouri
Botanical Garden, and Professor of Botany,
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

Marc Ross Physics: High-Energy Physics.
Professor of Physics, University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor.

Byron T. Scott Medicine: General Medicine.
Executive Editor, Medical Opinion,

New York, N.Y.

Mitchell R. Sharpe Astronautics and Space
Exploration: Space Probes. Science writer, author
of Satellites and Probes and Dividends from
Space, Huntsville, Ala.

Philip Skell Chemistry: Chemical Synthesis.
Professor of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park.

Frank A. Smith Transportation. Senior
Vice-President-Research, Transportation
Association of America, Washington, D.C.

J. F. Smithcors, Veterinary Medicine. Editor,
American Veterinary Publications, Santa Barbara,
Calif.

Charles Susskind Electronics. Professor of
Engineering Science, University of California.
Berkeley.

Sol Tax Behavioral Sciences: Anthropology.
Professor of Anthropology, University of Chicago.
Irwin Welber Communications. Associate
Executive Director, Toll Transmission, Bell
Laboratories, North Andover, Mass.

James A. West Fuel and Pov/er. Chief, Branch of
Interfuels and Special Studies, Division of Fossil
Fuels, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington. D.C.

Jo Conner

Within the past 400 years more than 220 mammais, birds, and reptiles
have become extinct, the majority through the activities of man. Many
other animal species are now declining. Among the endangered are
such common animals as the grizzly bear, the polar bear, the giant
panda, the wolf, several of the big cats {the cheetah, the jaguar, the
ocelot), the rhinoceros, the great apes, many of the large birds of prey,
the stork, the crane, the crocodile family, the large sea turtle, and the
larger whales — as well as a host of the more exotic, lesser known
species such as the thylacine, the gaur, the tuntong, the Philippine
monkey-eating eagle, and the Komodo Island monitor, the world's
largest lizard.

Until the coming of civilized man, the extinction of wild animals and
the evolution of new ones proceeded surely but almost imperceptibly
on a continuum of loss and renewal stretching back more than
3,000,000,000 years. A species’ span on earth was not measured in
centuries but in millennia— a particular animal’s species might be
traced back at least through several hundred thousand years.

Today this continuum of loss and renewal in forms of animal life is
gravely threatened. In recent years man has sharply accelerated the
pace of wildlife extinction at the same time that he has reduced the
opportunities for the adaptation and evolution of new forms, especially
of larger and higher animals. He has done this directly, by catching or
killing animals — mainly for food, sport, pets, commercial use, or be-
cause the animals compete with him in some way— and indirectly, by
displacement or by the despoliation of animal habitats.

The green sea turtle of Central
America (above) Is gradually
vanishing. It Is being killed lor its
meat and skin, and its eggs
are dug up lor the market.
The monk seal (opposite), long
hunted lor its oil, is nearly extinct.

WILLIAM G. CONWAY is general
director ol the New York Zoological
Society and the Center lor Field
Biology and Conservation.

12

Envin A. Bcuer

Collecting wild animals alive

Perhaps the least important drain on wildlife caused by man is by live
collecting for pets, zoos, and biomedical research. However, this drain
alone is enormous. In 1970, according to the U.S. Department of the
Interior, the United States imported alive 83,867,029 fish. 572,670
amphibians, 2,109,571 reptiles, 687,901 birds, and 101,302 mammals.
The great majority of fishes were destined for pet shops. No one has
any real idea of the effect of this vast trade upon fish stocks in nature.
Most imported amphibians were frogs intended for laboratory studies
and human pregnancy tests. The reptiles, v/hich varied from crocodiles
to pythons, were sold primarily as pets. Surprisingly, the huge bird im-
portation figure did not even include canaries or such psittacine birds

13

Destruction of their natural
environments, through pesticide
pollution and encroaching human
habitation, threatens (left to right)
the American bald eagle,
brown pelican, saddle-billed stork,
and Galapagos flightless cormorant.

as parrots or parakeets, but this trade too went almost entirely for pets.
Of the 1 01 ,302 wild mammals that were imported in 1 970, some 85,000
were monkeys captured mostly for biomedical research. Although
consumption of wild monkeys in 1970 may seem high, it was modest
compared to the importations during the height of the production of
poliomyelitis vaccine in 1958-60, which tallied 634,000.

The demand by zoos for wildlife is relatively modest. All of the world's
zoos together contain fewer than 600,000 mammals, birds, reptiles,
and amphibians, many of v/hich were bred in captivity. Nevertheless,
zoo importations occasionally affect species of exceptional rarity.

Unfortunately, U.S. wildlife import figures give only an approximate
idea of the drain on wild animal populations created by the live trade.
Most nations do not keep such records. Thus the real number of ani-
mals taken from the wild is much higher. And for every animal imported
alive, several may have died during the stress of collecting and ship-
ping processes. Moreover, large numbers of mammals, birds, and
reptiles are consumed in their countries of origin by local demands
for pets.

14

N. AAyers from Bruce Coleman Inc.

Hunting for sport

For many wildlife populations, sport hunting is a far more important
drain than live collecting. Nevertheless, such hunting in developed
countries like the United States, which assiduously assesses and man-
ages its "game crop,” usually does not occasion extinction and may
even provide funds and support for wildlife preserves. Sport hunting
can be a more serious threat in developing nations that cannot afford
the costs of highly trained game biologists and the constant research
their work entails to determine the numbers of animals that may be
annually killed without endangering the breeding base of the species.

In the United States, annual sport kills of waterfov/1 have ranged from
9 million to 15 million in recent years, deer kills about 2 million, and
black bear more than 20,000. It is estimated that U.S. hunters shot 41.9
million mourning doves in 1965-66! The lesson in this is that some
wildlife populations are enormously productive and produce enough
individuals so that many may be killed without serious threat of extinc-
tion // they are provided with the proper habitat and protected from
overhunting.

15

Crwin A. Bouer

Hunting for food

The hunting of wild animals for daily food is an integral part of the
livelihood of millions of people in the developing nations. The United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization recently reported, for
example, that more than 80% of all fresh meat consumed in Ghana
comes from game, and more than 50% in Zaire (formerly Congo
[Kinshasa]). There is no doubt that the drain on wildlife populations
from food hunting far outweighs that from live collecting and sport
hunting. Many species are endangered by it. If was commercial hunting
for food that destroyed the Eskimo curlew and passenger pigeon
populations in the United States, not sport hunting.

In the fishing industry, overfishing has long been a problem affecting
certain species. One indication of the seriousness of this drain on fish
stocks is the fact that the 1969 world fish catch (published in 1971)
showed an overall drop of about 2% from the previous year.

The hide and fur, meat, and animal oil trades
The number of animal lives sacrificed to the hide and skin trades dwarfs
all other drains on those species it affects. The big cats, the otters, the
fur seals, and the crocodilians are the primary victims. Before New
York’s recent conservation legislation (now being followed by other
states), thousands of these animals were killed forthe U.S. trade alone.
For example, in 1968 and 1969, U.S. furriers imported 3,168 raw
cheetah skins, 17,490 leopard skins, 23,347 jaguar skins, 262,030
ocelot skins, and 99,002 otter skins. These figures do not include the
animal deaths represented by the finished products imported from
furriers in other countries. In 1969 alone, the United States was shipped

275.000 skins from the capybara (the world's largest rodent) and

436.000 deer skins from Brazil.

Commercial exploitation of wild animals for meat and oil affects such
disparate creatures as sea turtles, kangaroos, and whales. The decline
of whale stocks in the face of almost unregulated slaughter and mod-
ern technology is a well-known international disgrace. Today the trade
is primarily in the hands of Soviet and Japanese whalers who appear
bent upon converting the last whales into dog food, lipstick, soap,
paint, transmission oil, and, to a certain extent, food for human con-
sumption. Unhappily, few species in international waters have ever
been satisfactorily protected by reasonable hunting regulations.

It is depressing to note that not one essential commercial product is
made from the entire traffic in wild animal hides and furs or from whale
oil for which there are not adequate substitutes.

The destruction of predators

Animals whose homes and food supply have been usurped by man and
who must therefore compete with him for the crops he plants or the
domesticated animals he rears are regarded by man as predators. In
the United States, studies have shown that the majority of wild preda-
tors make only limited inroads on livestock but do offer real values in

Animals of the polar regions~the
emperor penguin (below), musk-ox
(opposite, top), and walrus
(opposite, bottom)— are endangered
by man’s activities. Pesticide
pollution has been detected
in Antarctica, home of the penguin,
while the walrus and musk-ox
of the Arctic suffer from overhunting.

Tom Wytfj

17

Mondadoripress from PictorJol Porode

the control of other competing wildlife, particularly rodents. Broad
nonspecific predator control programs can rarely be justified on
economic grounds. Nevertheless, shooting, trapping, and poisoning
campaigns have long been conducted against wolves, foxes, coyotes,
and against the large birds of prey.

However, it is unrealistic to ignore the problems of those who must
live next door to tigers and crocodiles. Predators such as these must
have large enough areas within parks and refuges to permit them to
avoid man if they are to survive at all. In fast-growing over-crowded
countries, there appears small chance that the people will decide to set
aside such lands until it is too late for the great predators.

Environmental destruction

The most serious menace to current wild animal populations comes
from man indirectly, not through guns or traps. The continuing increase
of human population— with its supporting technology and seemingly
inevitable habitat despoliation, environmental poisoning, and pollution
—dwarfs all other threats to the survival of wild creatures in the im-
portance and finality of its effects.

Man’s population increased by more than 70 million annually in the
early 1970s and was expected to rise by a greater amount in succeeding
years. As a consequence, more land is continually being settled and
made unsuitable for wild creatures. When a marsh is drained, an
estuary filled, a forest cut, a savanna plowed, a stream dammed, or a
river channelized, animal habitats are eliminated. There is usually no
wish to destroy wild animals in this process but it is the inevitable
result. When animals are hunted directly, usually not all are killed; their
homelands remain where remnants of the population can find food and
shelter in which to rebuild their numbers. But when land or wafer is

18

Tom Myers

Les D. bne

made uninhabitable to wildlife, those populations it supported must
then be considered extinct, whether the species dwells elsewhere or
not. Canvasback ducks cannot feed and nest in wheat fields, orang-
utans cannot rear their families in lumber mills, and bison cannot
graze on parking lots.

Pesticides and pollution are the most subtle threats to wildlife. In
North America the chlorinated hydrocarbons, the best known of which
is DDT, have been shown to affect the physiology of many animals,
particularly birds. Pesticides applied to control insects on crops even-
tually wash into watercourses and the sea, where they are ingested by
microorganisms which are themselves eaten by fish and other ani-
mals. These latter are, in turn, eaten by the birds. At each step in this
food chain, the pesticide is further concentrated. One result of such
concentrations is that affected birds produce eggs with shells so
deficient in calcium that they are crushed in incubation. Because of
this process, brown pelicans, cormorants, peregrines, bald eagles,
and many other birds of prey are already extinct in various localities.

The threat to other animals posed by DDT is increasing. DDT or its
breakdown products is now being found even in remote Antarctic
populations of seals and penguins.

And there are other pervasive pollutants. Recently. PCBs (poly-
chlorobiphenyls), the organic compounds used frequently in making
plastics, have been implicated in birth defects of seabirds off the
coasts of Connecticut and New York. There has also been an increase
of heavy metals, particularly mercury, in lakes and rivers as a result of
sewage from plants using this element in manufacturing processes.
As a result, U.S. government agencies have been forced to declare
certain food fish unfit to eat. (See Feature Article: THE NOTORIOUS
TRIO: MERCURY, LEAD, AND CADMIUM.)

Reptiles under pressure include the
giant monitor of Indonesia (opposite),
the banded gecko (above, left), and the
alligator (above). Collectors have
depleted the supply of monitors, while
the gecko suffers from its use as a
pet. Alligators, long hunted lor their
skins, are now under protection and
are making a comeback.

19

Fred Eruerrr

Baby seals like the one shown
above with its mother are hunted
extensively lor their white fur.
The orangutan (opposite) has
suffered greatly from the destruction
of its natural habitat and from
collecting for laboratories,
museums, and zoos.

Pollution of the air and waters is emerging as an increasingly serious
threat to wildlife as well as to man. Secondary habitat despoliation is
the most readily observable result. Various types of conifers near the
sprawling urban complex of Los Angeles are dying, and the epiphytic
Spanish moss, pride of many cities in the southeastern United States,
also appears to be on the decline — the result of air pollution. These
losses should be viewed as the forerunners of future losses in the wild-
life community that will inevitably follow the changes in habitat.

Water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes has also had
grave consequences for wildlife. The life of Lake Erie has been seri-
ously depleted, and fishes and other aquatic life have disappeared from
many of the streams and rivers in the United States and Europe. The
effects of pollution can grow at an increasing rate as the demands
imposed by bacteria breaking down sewage cause a decline of oxygen
in surface waters and pathogenic bacteria reach concentrations suffi-
cient to spread disease to man as well as wildlife. V/ildlife is also
threatened by rising industrial activity with the resulting increases in
industrial accidents, such as oil spills. A serious oil spill off the coast
of an island where a restricted colony of mammals or birds exists might
eliminate a species. Finally, almost all polluting materials dumped on
the surface of the earth or sprayed within its atmosphere ultimately
come to rest within the oceans. Although fish are harder to count than
some land creatures, there is no reason to believe that they are any
less threatened.

20

Co Rentmeester, LIFE Mogozine X Time Inc

Animals added and subtracted

The introduction of exotic wild or domestic animals is still another way
in which man has endangered species. Countless cases have been
recorded where the introduction of birds, pigs, goats, cats, mongooses,
dogs, rabbits, and rats have pressed animals with small populations
or those confined upon islands to the verge of extinction. At the same
time, the introduced have often become serious pests. Introduced
animals usually compete with native forms for food and even destroy
food supplies. Some simply eat the native animals.

The removal of a native animal may also have unexpected results
for other species in the same area. The American alligator, for example,
now recovering under protection, has been shown to be necessary to
the survival of other wildlife in the Everglades during a drought. Its
deeply dug den, or "well," may be the only remaining water when the
glades dry up. Seed stocks of fish and amphibians survive in the well
to repopulate the glades when the waters return.

The removal of a predator may result in such increases of its prey
that their demands for food wreak havoc upon the vegetation of the
area and thus the habitat's ability to support them. Thus populations
of deer in some rural areas of the United States have expanded to such
an extent, v/ith the elimination of the wolf and puma, that they have
destroyed forest understory vegetation and even barked trees in some
years. Ecological interrelationships like these call for careful study
and research before wildlife is killed or habitats altered.

21

G. B. Scha!ler from Bruce Coleman Inc.

Large African mammals are among
the endangered species, even though
Africa has sought vigorously
to preserve its wildlile. The gorilla
(above) is menaced by the
destruction of the rain forests
in which it lives, while the
pygmy hippopotamus (opposite, top)
is hunted for food.
The rhinoceros (opposite, bottom)
is being depleted by both habitat
destruction and hunting for its horns.

The effort to save vanishing species

The status and probable rates of decline of wild animals vary in differ-
ent parts of the world. Although our knowledge is incomplete, what is
clear is that the scope of the problem is immense. Unhappily, those
who would protect wild lands and animals, at best, can fight only a
holding battle. They can preserve a particular forest or a rare creature
only until ignorance or self-interest impels yet another challenge to its
existence through further exploitation.

The hard facts faced by conservationists are that man’s utilization of
wild lands and parks must remain modest if the plant and animal life
they support is to survive; that much of the world's most fascinating
wildlife is in the developing countries, which have high rates of popula-
tion growth and tremendous economic needs that might well override
preservation; that preservation of wildlife may not offer immediate local
economic incentives; that the profit motive in commercial exploitation
of wildlife is hard to combat; and that wild creatures whose life cycles
regularly take them over national boundaries or into international
waters are particularly difficult to protect.

Nevertheless, strong park and conservation departments have de-
veloped in many nations, and hundreds of nonprofit organizations
have taken up the conservation challenge. These organizations mainly
work through public education by producing publications, holding
conferences, giving lectures, and generating funds. They muster
support for conservation legislation and for the establishment of parks
and reserves, and they conduct research on wildlife problems. Clearly,
the establishment and maintenance of parks and reserves that include
appropriate habitats is the most important step that can be taken to
insure the survival of most threatened species. In a few cases, wild
animals have been saved or aided by captive propagation.

One thing is clear. There is no reason whatsoever for optimism about
the future of wild animals. It remains an open question whether man
the destroyer can become man the preserver in time to prevent many
more species from becoming extinct.

22

■ \ .

't

, 3

White pelicans have decreased
considerably because ol the effect
of pesticides on their calcium
metabolism, causing their eggshells
to break before the young
are hatched. Leopards are hunted
lor their skins, while the pressure
ol increasing human population
on their habitats has caused
the tiger to decline in numbers
from 30,000 to 2,500 in 35 years.

Vila from Rapho-Gulllumetle

Endangered large mammals include
the polar bear (opposite, top), which
sutlers trom excessive hunting,
and the giant panda (opposite,
bottom), a species ol small numbers
that lives only in western China.
Alrican hoofed mammaii that are
threatened include the oryx (above),
hunted extensively lor lood, and the
already rare okapi (left).

George Hohon from Photo Releorcher^

Monkeys are threatened both by
human encroachment on their habitats
and by hunting. In 1970 approximately
85,000 monkeys were imported
into the United States, mainly
for biomedical research.
On the opposite page two endangered
animals, the cheetah and open-billed
stork, enjoy the protection
of a game refuge in Kenya.

Carlo Bavagnoli, IIFE Magozine © Time Inc.

Bill N. Kleeman from Tom Stock & Assocjotes

■-* 6 ; >- • •

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r-.V wfy«. *■ *' '

i

C. H. GEOFFREY OLDHAM is a senior
research fellow of the Science Policy
Research Unit at the University
of Sussex in England. He has traveled
extensively in China.

Almost 25 years have passed since Mao Tse-tung established the
People's Republic of China and committed that country along a path
toward his concept of a Communist utopia. Throughout these 25 years
the cornerstone of China’s science policy has been that "science must
serve the people.” Most of the Chinese investments in science and
technology have been governed by this dictum and, hence, any assess-
ment of the current status of science and technology in China must
be measured against Mao's own objectives.

Had this article been written 20 years ago it would have been much
more difficult to develop this viewpoint. Then a nation’s scientific
prestige was measured almost entirely by its ability to produce new
knowledge and, to a lesser extent, to use knowledge in producing
sophisticated weapons and generating wealth. In the 1970s policy-
makers in almost all countries are much more concerned with the
utilization of science and technology to achieve a whole gamut of
objectives, frequently summed up in the phrase "improvement in the
quality of life." That "science should serve the people" has now be-
come the cornerstone of science policy in the United States and
Europe and, indeed, in most countries of the worid.

Although Chinese thinking about science has been dominated by a
utilitarian viewpoint, the precise ways in which science should serve
the people have been the subject of heated debate. The specific
policies have changed frequentiy and sometimes dramaticaiiy. indeed,
it is these changes and the Chinese willingness to experiment with
novel approaches that make a study of Chinese science and tech-
nology so interesting and yet so tantalizing. It is interesting not only
because of the inherent interest of China’s social experiment but be-
cause of the possible relevance of the Chinese experience to other
developing countries. It is tantalizing because, although it is pos-
sible to form a reasonably good idea of Chinese policies from the
Chinese press, it is extraordinariiy difficult to obtain a ciear picture of
their success or failure in achieving the desired goals.

This article will attempt to reflect both the interest and the frustra-
tions of a study of Chinese science and technology. It will attempt to
summarize the changing Chinese policies on science and technology
and, in a concluding section, it will speculate on the reasons behind
Mao’s strategy.

Throughout the article reference will be made to the major issues
that are the subject of debate among those concerned with how less
developed countries can best use science and technology as tools to
aid their development. It is essential to recognize that China is the
world's largest developing country in both area and population,
and that it exists in a world where 98% of expenditure on research and
experimental development takes place in the industrialized countries.
This maldistribution of world research endeavor has profound implica-
tions for the less developed countries. Not only is much of the world’s
research irrelevant to the needs of poor countries, especially in the
tropics, but some of it, such as research on the development of syn-

32

Courtesy, Smithsonion institution, freer Gallery of Art, Wos^ingfort DC

China's knowledge of the rudder more than 1,000 years before it appeared in Europe, suggested by the painting (above)
copied in the 11th or 12th century A D from a 4th-century design, was confirmed in 7958 by archaeofogicaf evidence
Civilization in China has been traced back many thousands of years The excavations in Sian (below) date from
the Stone Age

thetics, is positively harmful to their prospects for trade in raw mate-
rials, It is against this background that the Chinese priorities and
experience must be viewed.

Chinese industrial policy appears
to give equal emphasis
to small-scale, local factories
and to heavy industry The steel
mill (below) is in Anshan
in Manchuria Automobile plants
include those m Shanghai
(opposite page, left)
and Changchun.

Historical background

Although China's commitment to modern science is relatively new, it
has a long history of scientific discovery and technological invention.
As Joseph Needham of Cambridge University has documented so well
in his Science and Civilisation in China, China can lay claim to more
technological firsts than almost any other civilization. It was the Chi-
nese who invented the seismograph in the 2nd century a.d. The mag-
netic compass, gunpowder, and the printing press with movable type
are further examples of technologies first developed in China and
rediscovered in the Western world many years later. However, for some
as yet unknown reason, the scientific revolution took place in Western
Europe rather than in China. And following the scientific revolution
came the industrial revolution and the growth in material wealth of
Europe and then the United States. Meanwhile, China and the rest of
what we now call the developing world changed only slowly.

Apart from a few early contacts with missionaries such as Matteo
Ricci, China remained isolated from the changes that were sweeping
through Europe until its defeat at the hands of the British during the
Opium Wars in the 19th century. From that point the slow, painful
process of modernization took on a new dimension as some Chinese
reformers urged that China begin to adopt what they thought of as

Western science and Western technology. Their voices had but little
effect, and it was not until after the Manchu dynasty was overthrown
in 1911 that the efforts to transplant modern science onto Chinese soil
produced any significant results.

Even then it was not until the 1920s that the major intellectual break
with Confucianism was made and the politicians committed them-
selves to the building of a new China based on modern science and
technology. By the mid-1930s the Nationalists had begun to institution-
alize science and had established several research institutes and
universities. Although this scientific effort was severely disrupted dur-
ing the Japanese and civil wars, there still existed in China in 1949 a
nucleus of competent scientists and engineers, and a start had been
made toward building an indigenous scientific system.

The organization of science

The importance of the fact that Mao Tse-tung "inherited" a nucleus
of scientists and an organizational framework, albeit in a fragmented
form, should not be underestimated. For many years “experts" con-
cerned with development put a low priority on the need for less de-
veloped countries to have their own indigenous scientific capability.
They argued that the industrialized countries were a veritable super-
market of technologies and ail the less developed countries had to do
was to shop around and choose what they wanted. Mao has always
completely rejected this argument, and now most other less developed
countries are following his line.

(left) E'tsch from E'gcV Sfor, lobo-.-? ond cp-

poi ie po9^) Sc^iu’*^-es$ from Ebcfc S‘or

To begin with, most of the industrial technologies developed in the
advanced countries are designed for conditions of large-scale pro-
duction and a situation where capital is relatively abundant and labor
is scarce. This is hardly the situation in China or other developing
countries. Even more inappropriate for less developed countries is
most of the agricultural and medical research done in the developed
world. But probably the single most important reason why China and.
now, the rest of the developing countries want their own scientific
establishments is that otherwise they will be dependent on foreigners
to make all the important technological decisions affecting them. This,
they find, is economically unpalatable and— what is even more impor-
tant— politically unacceptable.

The network of research institutions and facilities for training scien-
tists and engineers that grew up in China in the 1950s was based largely
on the Soviet system. The Academies of Sciences, Agricultural Sci-
ences, and Medical Sciences each operated its own research insti-
tutes and together they carried out most of the advanced research
being done in the country. Overall strategy was dictated by the State
Scientific and Technological Commission, with applied research spon-
sored and carried out by the relevant ministry. Very few of the univer-
sities carried out advanced research, and most of the new research
workers received their training on-the-job at the various institutes of
the academies.

After an initial period in the early 1950s when the academies deter-
mined their own research priorities, the work of the various institutes
became subject to an overall planning authority. In 1956 a 12-year plan
for science was drawn up with a great deal of Soviet help. It was
claimed that in the 10 priority areas identified in the plan China would
aim to catch up with advanced-world levels by the end of the plan
period. However, during the campaign of mass mobilization called the
Great Leap Forward (1958-60), the earlier concept of central planning
of research priorities seems to have been abandoned in favor of en-
couraging all innovations that originated with peasants and workers in
whatever field they occurred. During the 1960s, although the State
Scientific and Technological Commission continued to exist and con-
tinued to be the main policy-making body for science and technology,
there was little reference to it in the Chinese press. It either operates
in a very secret way or is largely ineffective.

The Great Leap Forward coincided with another event that was to
have a major effect on Chinese science— as well as on foreign policy.
This was the withdrawal of all Soviet aid. Between 1958 and 1961 all
Soviet nationals were called home, and the massive Soviet technical
assistance program came to a halt. The Soviets even took the blue-
prints of unfinished plants with them. This event still rankles very deep
with the Chinese. Even in 1972 visitors to China were being told
with evident bitterness about the fickle Soviets, and there can be little
doubt that the Chinese attitude to the Soviet Union is heavily influenced
by this event.

Industrial production suffered fess
than scientific research
and education during the convulsions
of the Cultural Revolution.

The 12,000-ton hydraulic press
(opposite page) was photographed
in Shanghai.

37

The effect on Chinese science policy was immediate and long lasting.
It made the Chinese distrustful of foreign aid, and "self-reliance" be-
came the key slogan of the early 1960s. More and more resources were
injected into the Chinese science system, and by 1 965 it began to seem
that the Chinese aim of catching up with advanced-world levels in
certain priority areas was well on the way to reality. In 1964 and 1965
contacts with Western scientists were considerable, and formal scien-
tific exchanges were arranged with many Western European countries.

The reports of the foreign scientists who visited China indicated that
China was creating a solid foundation in most scientific disciplines.
The Chinese scientists were apparently well informed of work going
on in their respective disciplines in other parts of the world. In a few
areas they were already making important new contributions them-
selves, although by and large there were few surprises — the most
commonly used adjective of the foreign visitors was "sensible." The
quality of the scientific papers published in the Chinese journals had
become sufficiently high to warrant cover-to-cover translation of
several of them by U.S. commercial enterprises. By the mid-1960s,
judged by Western scientific eyes, it appeared that the Chinese science
system was extremely healthy and vigorous and doing good work.
But apparently Mao felt otherwise.

When the Cultural Revolution first began in 1966, the scientists were
specifically excluded. This exclusion did not last long, however, 'and
by early 1967 the activities of the scientists came under close scrutiny.
For several months the Chinese press was full of accounts of upheavals
within the institutes of the Academy of Sciences. The test was whether
the institutes really had "served the people.” Many scientists were
accused of being too greatly influenced by the foreign scientific litera-
ture and too little influenced by Chinese problems; they were too eager
for scientific awards and titles and sought personal fame rather than
devoting themselves to relatively unglamorous work. In short, scien-
tific research was not sufficiently integrated with the needs of society.

By the early 1970s these same charges were being made against the
scientific community in most of the world’s developing countries
and, increasingly, in the more industrialized countries. The Chinese
solution has been to put the direction of the research institutes under
the control of "revolutionary committees,” made up of representatives
of the People’s Liberation Army, the political cadres, and "revolution-
ary” workers. They have also experimented with different ways of
integrating research with education and production, but too little is
known about the details of these experiments to permit evaluation of
their results.

Contacts with foreign scientists were broken off during the Cultural
Revolution and. since the publication of Chinese scientific journals
also stopped, it became very difficult to assess the effect of the Cultural
Revolution on Chinese scientific research. In the early 1970s, however,
China made a dramatic reentry into international affairs, and scientists
were once again able to visit the research institutes of the Academy of

38

Sciences. They found that the institutes were working on more applied
problems than had been the case in the mid-1960s and that, despite
the criticism of scientists during the Cultural Revolution and the fact
that many had spent time working in communes, most were now back
doing research. They also found that, although foreign scientific
journals were being received, there seemed to be less familiarity,
especially on the part of the younger workers, with the latest research
in the rest of the world than had been the case before the Cultural
Revolution.

It is still too early to judge the long-term effects of China’s isolation
from the mainstream of world scientific research. It is possible that in
some research areas Chinese scientists may have pioneered entirely
novel approaches. But the rate of growth of scientific knowledge in
the world is such that, by cutting itself off from much of this knowledge,
China can only delay the time when it reaches its stated goal of catch-
ing up with the advanced countries of the world.

Scientific and technicai education

Although the Communist government inherited a nucleus of scientific
institutions when it came to power in 1949, the actual number of fully
qualified scientists and engineers was small. A major effort was
launched to increase the complement of technical personnel, and
certainly the number of persons with some technical training has risen
dramatically. It is very difficult, however, to make comparisons either
between China and other countries or between the situations that have
existed at different times within China, largely because there seem to
be no consistent manpower definitions. The best manpower estimates,
based on admittedly conflicting Chinese evidence, indicate that the
stock of scientists and engineers rose from 600,000 in 1955 to 2.4
million in 1967. Approximately 670,000 of the 2.4 million had been
trained in full-time institutes of higher education in China after 1949.
The rest either were promoted to the rank of scientist or engineer with-
out receiving full-time training or were already trained in 1949.

It has been estimated that the number of college-trained scientists
and engineers had reached 1.3 million when the Cultural Revolution
erupted and all the schools and universities were closed. The univer-
sities remained closed for four years and only began teaching scien-
tific subjects again in 1971. This represents a major loss of technical
manpower. But even though the schools and colleges were shut down,
the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences remained open,
and a number of them tripled their staffs during the Cultural Revolution.
Since most of the new recruits were secondary-school graduates, the
Academy of Sciences must have played an important role in continuing
to provide a scientific education, at least for some boys and girls.

When the colleges and universities were reopened in 1971. there had
been many reforms. The new entrants were drawn mainly from families
of working-class origin, and it was far more difficult for the children of
the former bourgeois classes to gain entry. The period of instruction

Like many developing countries,
China faces the problem of whether
a sophisticated, capital-intensive
industrial sector can coexist
with labor-intensive technologies
that provide employment and involve
workers in the system.

was to be cut from four and five years to two or three years, and higher
education was to be linked more closely with production. This meant
not only changes in the curricula but also that students would spend
part of their time working in factories or communes. Students had
engaged in periods of manual work before the Cultural Revolution,
but now such work was to be integrated more systematically into the
students' schedules. These policies mean that the new scientists and
engineers will enter the work force more as scientific and technical
generalists than as specialists.

As important as the education of the most highly trained members
of the society may be. perhaps equally important in a developing
country is the scientific education given to the population as a whole.
The Chinese have accorded this a high priority. Not only do full-time
secondary schools stress scientific and technical subjects but a wide
variety of spare-time and part-time educational programs have been
provided especially for workers in factories. In fact, one of the most
important educational accomplishments has been the training of para-
technical personnel. This has been particularly successful in the medi-
cal sphere, where large numbers of "barefoot doctors" have brought
rudimentary health care to millions of peasants. Also, great emphasis
has been placed on giving all members of society some elementary'
scientific knowledge. This is seen by the Chinese as particularly im-
portant, since they look to the workers to provide many of the technical
innovations taken up by industry. It is claimed that workers’ innovations
are more relevant to production than those generated by the "experts."
This is a controversial issue in China, but certainly during the Cultural
Revolution workers' innovations received the greatest publicity’.

Science, technology, and society: industry
So far this article has focused attention on the ways in which China
has built up its indigenous science system. In particular, it has con-
centrated on the organization of scientific research and on the training
of scientific and technical manpower. However, research carried out
in a country’s own laboratories is only one way in which the production
sectors of that country can acquire new technologies. The other way
is by importation from abroad.

One of the most important science and technology policy decisions
for any country involves how much and what to import and horv much
and what to generate at home. In the past, most developing countries
have relied heavily on foreign imports. Nov/, hov/ever. it is recognized
that such reliance can lead to economic and political dependence
on foreign countries, and many developing countries are trying to
find ways to diversify' their sources of technology.

China has made a big issue of "self-reliance." Just hov/ self-reliant
has it been and to what extent has China, too. depended on foreign
technology? Also, in their choice of techniques, to v/hat extent have
Chinese policy'-makers been concerned v.'ith goals other than economic
growth? The remaining sections of the article v/ill attempt to ansv/er

40

some of these questions as they apply to different sectors of the econ-
omy. Examples will be given that are illustrative of more general policy
decisions and, wherever possible, comparison will be made with the
policies of other less developed countries.

It is in the industrial sector that the policy conflicts over choice of
techniques and issues of importing foreign technology can be seen
most clearly. But here, as in almost all phases of Chinese development
strategy, there has been no single approach that has dominated
Chinese thinking over the entire period of Communist rule. Rather,
there have been three or four periods, during each of which different
policies had predominance.

In the first period, immediately after 1949, Chinese industrial policy
clearly aimed at copying the Soviet model. Emphasis was put on heavy
industry, and technologies— mostly imported from the Soviet Union
—were for the most part capital intensive. Rapid economic growth was
China's principal goal. This period lasted until 1958, when problems
of employment and income distribution assumed greater importance
and a major switch was made to small-scale industries, especially in
rural areas. Greatest publicity has been given to the backyard blast
furnaces introduced at this time. They proved to be an economic fail-
ure, since the quality of the iron was too low to be of much practical
use, but other local industries initiated in the communes— for making
farm implements, for example— thrived. During this period, which
lasted about three years, tremendous publicity was given to workers'
innovations, and the role of the expert declined.

The next period began in 1961 and continued until the Cultural
Revolution in 1966. It started with the severing of Soviet aid, the with-
drawal of the Soviet technicians, and the canceling by the Chinese of
orders for new Soviet plants. The enormous flow of Soviet technology
into China, which had characterized the 1950s, became only a trickle,
and "self-reliance" was the order of the day. This call for self-reliarce
led to a boost in indigenous research and restored the prestige of the
research worker and expert, but it did not mean that China became
autarchic. Although cut off from Soviet technology, China began to buy
modern technology from Japan and Western Europe. Orders were
placed not only for equipment and machinery but also for entire plants.

The Cultural Revolution once again led to new policies. Egalitarian-
ism became the principal goal. The scientist and engineer were
criticized for becoming a new "elite” and were accused of being the
forerunners of a return to capitalism. The earlier policies were ascribed
to the chief of state of the republic, Liu Shao-ch'i, and were deemed
to be wrong. Once again emphasis was given to innovations that
originated with workers. The importation of foreign technology de-
clined from its previous levels but. despite the emphasis on self-
reliance, it never stopped.

Finally, in 1971, the policy began to change again. The importation
of sophisticated technologies increased in volume, and the policy of
"walking on two legs." with roughly equal emphasis being given to

41

■'^jr'cultural laborers (right) still
cultivate rice paddies as their
c- castors have done for centuries.

While much Chinese farming
IS carried on by traditional
methods, the government has given
high priority to the use
ol fertilizer and the construction
of dams such as the San Men Dam
near Peking (below).

Brian Broke from Ropho Guniymer*e

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1

t

Emil Scliulthess from Block Stor

modern, large-scale industrialization and local, small-scale industries, China's greatest industrial
appeared to be the main policy guideline. concentration is in Manchuria

What lessons can be learned from these changing Chinese policies steam turbine is in a factory

that may have some relevance for other developing countries? “

First, undue reliance on one source of foreign technology may have
disastrous short-term economic effects should that source dry up.

Second, the short-term economic disruption caused by cessation of
a single-source foreign technology may have longer-term beneficial
effects, since it stimulates self-reliance and encourages the process
of shopping around for alternative sources of foreign technology that,
in turn, may lead to imports more appropriate to local conditions. Great
self-reliance and inventiveness were needed in China to cope with a
situation in which plants were left unfinished, blueprints were taken
away, and there was even an embargo on the importation of spare
parts. In a different context. Cuba was placed in a similar situation
vis-a-vis the United States when the latter country put an embargo on
the export of goods to Cuba in 1960. Some Cubans argue that, in the
long run. the benefits of the "technical learning effect" that this gen-
erated among Cuban engineers will far outweigh the shorl-run eco-
nomic losses that the embargo caused.

Third, the goals of job creation and egalitarianism will probably call
for different sorts of technologies than those that maximize short-term
economic growth. The Chinese approach has been to utilize both sorts

43

of technologies, but it is doubtful whether relatively inefficient labor-
intensive technologies can exist side by side with modern sophisticated
technologies in a market economy. Thus, although there is great in-
terest in job-creating technologies in many less developed countries
today, it is by no means certain that the Chinese experience is partic-
ularly relevant.

Fourth, the Chinese experience certainly indicates that considerable
economic and social advantages can result from involving the workers
in “innovation." On the other hand, the vacillating policy toward ex-
perts indicates that, although China appears to have as much trouble
as most other countries in getting its scientists and engineers to work
on "relevant" problems, there is little evidence to suggest that the
Chinese solution of political thought reform has been any more suc-
cessful than the less dramatic solutions posed in other countries.

Agriculture

In the early years of Communist rule little attention was given to de-
veloping new agricultural technologies. In the late 1950s, when the
decision was made to give agriculture first priority, two technical issues
predominated. The first was how to increase yields, and the second was
the more ideological issue of agricultural mechanization.

Technology plays an important part in increased production through
its contribution to irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, and new seeds.
During the Great Leap Forward, when the communes were first intro-
duced, the greatest emphasis was put on irrigation. Labor was mobi-
lized on a massive scale to dig ditches and build dams. In the 1960s
much more stress was placed on improving production by producing
and applying more chemical fertilizer. The need for fertilizer has led
to the invention of new techniques that enable small-scale plants to
manufacture ammonia and urea efficiently. By the end of 1971 nearly
half of all chemical fertilizer was being produced by local industry. It
has been estimated that most of the increased grain output in the 1960s
was due to the application of chemical fertilizer.

There is as yet no evidence that Chinese scientists have been able
to breed new strains of rice and wheat as high yielding as those de-
veloped by the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines
and by the Wheat Research Institute in Mexico, which have contributed
so much to the Green Revolution in much of the rest of Asia. These new
rice and wheat seeds are not particularly appropriate to Chinese con-
ditions. It would be logical to assume that the Chinese will put high
priority on research to develop suitable high-yielding varieties since
these, used together with water and fertilizer, will be needed if China
is to meet its grain requirements over the next decades.

The mechanization issue is more clouded by ideological considera-
tions. Mao has advocated that, in the long run, China should aim for the
maximum possible mechanization of agriculture. The tactics to achieve
this long-term objective were subjected to heated debate during the
Cultural Revolution. The supporters of Liu Shao-ch'i argued that the
44

agricultural machinery to be allocated by the state should be con-
centrated in those areas most suitable for mechanized operations— ;.e .
large areas of arable land where draft animals are Scarce. They also
favored the concentration of research resources in a few centralized
research institutes. Mao’s supporters, on the other hand, were in favor
of decentralization and of giving the initiative to the communes. If a
particular commune wanted to mechanize and acquire its own tractors,
it should be encouraged to do so.

Similarly, Mao's supporters favored decentralization of research.
Instead of just one or two large research stations, Mao favored the
establishment of dozens of semimechanization research stations, so
that if a peasant had a worthwhile innovation he would be able to try
it out in one of the research stations near his own commune. This not
only would encourage a flow of new innovations but would give all the
peasants a sense of invotvemenf in the devefopment of the country.
Mao did not completely rule out advanced research— some resources,
he argued, should be used to support it— but the bulk should be used
to support the semimechanization institutes. The whole question be-
came a controversial issue during the mid-1960s, and the extent of the
debate was revealed in the Chinese press during the Cultural Revolu-
tion. As in almost all such debates, the reader is left in no doubt as to
whether Mao’s ideas were "correct" and are now being implemented.

There are obvious lessons here for other developing countries.
Not only is Mao's policy more appropriate for generating labor-in-
tensive technologies, it also has the further social benefit of providing
more opportunities for individual peasants to become involved with
development.

Medicine

It is probably in the field of public health and medicine that the Chinese
experience has greatest relevance forother countries. There are several
particularly notable aspects to the Chinese approach. First, the Chi-
nese have stressed preventive rather than curative medicine. This
is the reverse of what has been done in almost all other developing
countries. Second, they have given a high priority to training para-
medical personnel. Peasants are given from a few months to a couple
of years of medical training in rural areas, and these workers provide
the backbone of the medical service. Third, in certain branches of cura-
tive medicine the Chinese have surpassed even the more industrially
advanced nations. Particularly notable have been the successes in
rejoining severed limbs and in the treatment of burns. Fourth, the
Chinese have achieved quite remarkable successes by combining
traditional with modern medicine. Herbal drugs have been shown to
have considerable therapeutic value, and the new successes in using
acupuncture to replace anesthetics in several types of major surgery
have gained worldwide attention.

The most significant and important features, however, are the con-
centration on preventive medicine and the introduction of a curative

45

.' 3 medical practitioners have
:: thieved considerable success
- ribining modern practice with
such traditional methods
.-is acupuncture, in which needles
are inserted at specilied points
m the body. An ovarian cystectomy
perlormed on the woman (right)
under acupuncture anesthesia was
witnessed by a group of American
physicians at the Third Teaching
Hospital in Peking. The patient was
conscious and able to talk
throughout the operation.
Acupuncture charts (opposite page,
left) are used by doctors in placing
the needles for anesthesia.
The "plastic man" (opposite page,
right) is on display at the Industrial
Exhibit Hall in Shanghai.

Dr, Victor W. Side!, Montefiore Hospitol, Bronx, New York

service in rural areas. Just how this has been done is graphically de-
scribed by Joshua Horn, who recently returned to England after work-
ing in China as a doctor for 15 years. In his book Away with All Pests,
he describes what happened in his hospital in Peking after the start of
the Cultural Revolution, when the decision was made to speed up the
rate at which rural areas were being provided with health care. Every
urban hospital was ordered to make one-third of its staff available for
duty in rural health centers. Horn’s hospital sent its people to a center
in Hopei. At the end of a year some chose to stay permanently in the
country, but the rest returned to Peking to be replaced by another third
of the hospital staff.

Horn describes in some detail the work of the hospital staff after they
had arrived in the countryside. The first function of the rural teams was
to accent the role of preventive medicine by stressing public health
measures and sanitation. To this end, they helped organize campaigns
to eradicate such pests as flies and mosquitoes. Next, the teams set up
training courses for the barefoot doctors. During the first winter the
new recruits from the communes received five months of medical train-
ing. At the end of that time they were able to give inoculations and first
aid and to know when to call the hospital doctors. They returned for a
second five-month spell of training the next year and were scheduled
to undergo three such sessions. After training they returned to their
communes to provide grass-roots medical service. The rural teams also
provided instruction in family planning and worked closely with exist-
ing medical units in the area to upgrade their capabilities in both
traditional and modern medicine.

This widespread effort to bring health services to rural areas must be
reckoned as one of the really outstanding of all Chinese accomplish-
ments. Nov/here else has the movement of doctors from poorer to
richer areas and from poorer to richer countries been reversed.

46

6nan SroVe from Ropho Guillumetre R C. Hunt

Defense

Although the application of science and technology in the economic
and health fields has greatest relevance for other less developed coun-
tries, it is the Chinese technical achievements in the development of
military technologies that have gained the most notice. The timing of
the events is well known, although the technical details are still vague.
The first Chinese hydrogen bomb was successfully exploded only eight
years after the inauguration of the first research reactor and less than
three years after the first nuclear explosion. Chinese rockets have
launched a guided missile and put two space satellites into orbit.

47

The scientific and technical work behind these successes was led by
Ch'ien Hsueh-sen and Ch'ien San-chiang, both of whom had worked in
the United States but who decided to return to China in the mid-1950s.
Obviou-ly, their work has been given massive research and engineer-
ing support, and although defense science and technology did not
entirely escape political criticism during the Cultural Revolution, they
do not seem to have undergone the same sort of disruption that civilian
science experienced. The existence of such a high-technology enclave
in China has ramifications far beyond its military value. Especially
important is the fact that it must demand high quality, technically
sophisticated products from Chinese industry. It is interesting tospecu-
late on the extent to which lessons learned in the process of linking
industrial production with research and with defense requirements
have been transferred to the civilian sector.

Conclusion

Sufficient examples of Chinese science and technology policies have
now been given to enable a synthesis to be made. What appear to be
contradictory and at times even irrational policies make sense if Mao's
long-term objective is kept in mind. This is, and has been ever since
the People’s Republic was founded, to set China firmly on the road to a
truly utopian Communist society, a society in which there is no exploi-
tation. no dichotomy between manual and mental labor or between
urban and rural areas, and where everyone is both "red and expert"
(i.e.. both ideologically committed and technically competent).

That Mao was disappointed with the progress being made toward
this goal was clear as early as 1964-65. He apparently decided that a
major midcourse correction was needed and in mid-1966 launched
the Cultural Revolution. In the years preceding the Cultural Revolution,
Mao had taken the "experts," many of whom had been trained abroad,
and tried to make them into "reds." but with only partial success. It
seems that as China developed economically, an elitist technocracy
began to emerge — one that was pragmatic rather than idealistic. Mao
believed that the actions of the pragmatists would lead China back into
the capitalist camp.

Clearly, from Mao's point of view, drastic action was needed if the
younger generation was not to be misled permanently. If he could not
make reds out of the experts, then he must try to make a new kind of
expert out of the reds. This was to be accompanied by an even greater
effort to reeducate the scientists and other intellectuals in what seems
to be an almost desperate attempt to attune them mentally to Mao’s
utopia.

The growing dichotomy between manual and mental labor appears
to have been one of the key reasons for starting the Cultural Revolution
and explains much of what has happened in the research institutes and
universities. Once the revolution was under \vay, however, the other
dichotomy between city and village — took on increasing importance.
Mao s efforts to decentralize education and health services and to

48

encourage small-scale industries and intermediate technologies are
consistent with his aim of narrowing the gaps in development between
different parts of China itself.

That the revolution has caused a major interruption in education and
scientific research there can be no doubt. There appears to have been
less of an interruption in industrial and agricultural production, and in
some sectors that are of military significance there have been major
technological feats. There have also been major gains in public health.
The interruptions in education and research appear to have been
temporary. The objective of self-reliance means that Mao's determina-
tion to use science and technology to build a modern China has not
faltered. But whether a really modern country can be built without, at
the same time, creating a technocratic elite remains to be seen.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING:

Horn, Joshua, Away with All Pests (Hamlyn, 1969).

Needham, J., Science and Civilisation in China, vol. i-iv (Cambridge
University Press, 1954-65).

Signer, E., and Galston, A. W., "Education and Science in China,"
Science (Jan. 7, 1972, pp. 15-23).

Wu Yuan-li ef a/.. The Organization and Support of Scientilic Re-
search and Development in Mainland China (Praeger, 1970).

49

TheTasaday

Stone AgeT ribe of Mindanao

In the mountain jungles of the Philippines a group of scientists
in 1971 first encountered the Tasaday, people who lived in a
Stone Age culture with almost no knowledge of other human beings.

The information in this article
is based on research and reports
by the following scientists
and officials associated
with the PANAMIN foundation:
Frank Lynch, Robert B. Fox.

Teodoro Uamzon,
and Carlos Fernandez.

The recent discovery of the Tasaday Manobo— a tribe of food gatherers
living in caves and still using stone tools— is providing dramatic new
data on human ecology and on the ability of man to adapt to a highly
specialized environment. For the Tasaday inhabit a vast, high-altitude
rain forest located in the mountains of South Cotabato Province, in
the southern part of the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. Here
they have survived as a tribe for centuries even though they have been
virtually without trade or other relationships with the rest of mankind.

Official contact with these unique people was made by Manuel
Elizalde, Jr., president of PANAMIN, the Private Association for Na-
tional Minorities, Inc., a nonprofit foundation undertaking critically
needed medical and socioeconomic development projects among
cultural minorities in the Philippines. Research among the Tasaday
during periods of contact beginning in June 1971 and extending
through May 1972 provide the basis for this statement about their
discovery, their physical traits and language, and their society and
culture.

When first contacted in 1971, the Tasaday had no knowledge of any
cultivated plant such as rice, taro, the sweet potato, corn, cassava, or
millet. The Tasaday language has no words for these widespread culti-
vated plants, nor for any tools or other notions associated with agri-
cultural activities. The Tasaday apparently never had tasted salt or
sugar, nor smoked tobacco, since they also lacked words for these
common items. Perhaps the Tasaday are the only people now living in
an agriculturally appropriate environment who neither knov/ nor grov/
tobacco, sweet potatoes, corn, or cassava (plants of American Indian
origin that swept the v/orld in sailing vessels of the 16th and 17th
centuries).

50

mm-H

t

t

/ 1

1

t -■ )

-■ ■

Manila' ,y*'-

V ' 11

, ‘ V ^

•r.

i . ,L';

./ * ** T *

■1 V frU

» V i

r . i ±

K

-f'* ..

r >
tri. uA

f

1 The Tasaday ,

1 '

•

The Tasaday Manobo were discovered
in a dense, high-altitude rain forest
in the southern portion of the
island of Mindanao. (Opposite page)
Group gathers around fire, which
is used both for cooking
and for warmth.

Stone tools made by the Tasaday (and used to fashion such imple-
ments of wood and bamboo as the digging stick, fire drill, and a crude
bamboo knife) are among the most primitive recorded in a tribe of
modern times. They include hand scrapers made from flakes of quartz
or from river pebbles ground to a sharp edge on one side and attached
to wooden handles. Unmodified stones are also hafted as hammers:
indeed, any handy cobble-sized stone may be picked up and used for
pounding.

The archaeological record (supported by carbon-14 dates) indicates
that such stone flakes and edge-ground scrapers still used by the
Tasaday were effectively replaced throughout the Philippines by metal
implements about 2,000 years ago. Study of the stoneworking tech-
niques of the Tasaday may lead scholars back to an understanding of
an art once thought to be lo$t.

The exploration of their forest habitat in March 1972 further dis-
closed that they inhabit or utilize three caves found in a limestone
conglomerate, located 400-500 feet up a steep slope above a creek
that provides drinking water and their major source of protein food.
The manner in which the Tasaday live in these caves (said by them also
to have been occupied by their forefathers) will provide singular new
data on the period, tens of thousands of years ago, when ancient man
characteristically inhabited caves and rock shelters.

The Tasaday at first seemed unaware that there were other societies
of people, although they told of having occasionally glimpsed alien
hunters or trappers or heard their voices in the forest. They were ig-
norant even of the names of such neighboring tribes as the Manobo
Blit, Ubo, and T’boli. Later, however, they told of having recent inter-
mittent contacts with neighboring forest groups, the Sanduka and the
Tasafang. Indeed, it appeared that Tasaday men traditionally married
Tasafang women.

Tasaday territory is in one of the most isolated, mountainous regions
of the Philippines. All of this broken and rugged terrain is above 3,000
feet elevation, -and is blanketed by hundreds of square kilometers of
ancient (climax) rain forest. Those who daily fly airplanes (described
by the Tasaday as "large birds") over the area found it difficult to be-
lieve that this vast sea of undisturbed forest was inhabited by man.
Crowns of towering wing-seeded trees (dipterocarps) form a ceiling
over the whole environment: even the small streams and creeks along
which the Tasaday live and move are not visible from the air. Their
world is the relatively warm floor of the forest, dark and damp under
clouds that accumulate around the mountain tops: and their home
caves. The sun. which Tasaday call the "eye of the day." filters through
the forest only briefly at its zenith. Thus, features of earth and sky
known to most people (such as lakes, oceans, open fields, and con-
stellations of stars) are unfamiliar to the Tasaday and have no expres-
sion in their language. By contrast, most unique features of their forest
habitat have a place name, and their knowledge of the local plants is
most detailed.

52

The only albino in the local group
of Tasaday, a retarded child, suffers
from rashlike sores over much
of his body and is carried constantly
by his widower father.

The Tasaday have remained apart from other men by successfully
adapting to a forest environment that has resisted intrusion from out-
side. So far, the forest has provided them with a stable and favorable
ecology that yields life’s basic needs. Now, however, along v/ith other
great climax forests of Southeast Asia and the Philippines, Tasaday
lands are being threatened. Loggers and miners are intruding, and
lowland and neighboring mountain agriculturists faced by exploding
populations are pushing into the mountains, cutting and burning clear-
ings in the forests for their crops of rice and corn. It is estimated by
United Nations sources that the primary forests in the Philippines
will be wiped out in perhaps 35 years. And without the forests, the
Tasaday (perhaps the last people on earth who live by collecting wild
foods in a high-altitude forest) can only disappear as a unique tribal
culture. Indeed, their survival even as a distinct biological subgroup
of people seems imperiled.

Discovery of a lost tribe

Persistent rumors of a primitive people living in the forest had been
reaching the PANAMIN staff at Kemato, the southern Mindanao loca-
tion of the T'boli Development Project, from a few Ubo and Manobo
Blit visitors. The Ubo and Manobo Blit are other isolated and conserva-
tive mountain-dwelling minority tribes who rarely have contacts with
the populous lowland peoples. None of these mountain dwellers, hovi-
ever, offered more than hearsay until 1971. In that year Kemato was
often visited by a Manobo Blit trapper named Dafal— popularly known
as “The Bird,” with a reputation of "walking through the forest like the
wind." The trapper revealed to Manuel E/izalde that he had met primi-
tive people in the forest and had stayed with them overnight.

Dafal told how he had first seen the Tasaday in 1967 (or 1966) while
placing traps for wild pigs in the forest. At that time, he surprised a
small group of naked Tasaday preparing v/ild yams (edible tubers)
along a creek. They fled at his approach but finally stopped v/hen he
continued to run after them shouting in Blit; “1 am good! I am good!
I can do you no harm!” According to the Tasaday, this v/as their first
contact with anyone from a human group different from theirs.

Dafal stated (as was later checked with the Tasaday themselves) that
when he first met them they had no metal tools, cloth, beads, or any
of the usual trade goods that have reached all other hunter-gatherer
societies known in Southeast Asia. Indeed, he observed that they were
exclusively a food-gathering society with no hunting or trapping de-
vices. Dafal added that he visited the Tasaday in the forest about a
dozen times while trapping wild pigs or gathering the pith of palms.
He gave them a fev/ metal items, the most important being two small
bolos (knives for hacking vegetation), only one of which, broken and
badly nicked, remained in 1971, and v/ire for brass earrings. He also
introduced the group to the bov/ and arrov/, a few types of baskets,
rags of cloth, and even contributed their only musical instrument — a
mouth harp— which one Tasaday man learned to play.

54

Dolf Herros from Nancy Polmer Photo Agency

Plans then were made by Elizalde to seek the Tasaday by helicopter
during a socioeconomic survey of the Manobo Blit settlements near
the forest where Dafal said the Tasaday lived. Dafal was sent ahead with
a party of T'boli workers who would clear a landing place on the edge
of the forest while Dafal himself searched for the Tasaday. Then, on
June 7, 1971, shortly after the helicopter landed. Data! emerged into
the clearing from the forest with four frightened Tasaday men. They
seemed terrified by the whirling blades of the "large bird” and by the
"god" (Elizalde) who Dafal told them rode inside. Dafal stated that the
Tasaday believed in a kind of messiah who, according to their ancestral .

Family group gathers around fire
by the side of a stream. The Tasaday
get much of their food, notably
crabs and tadpoles, from such creeks.

55

Children in the local group of the
Tasaday number 11 boys and
2 girls: all those pictured above
and on the opposite page are boys.
Hands of the teen-aged boy above
are wrinkled and aged
from constant food gathering.

tradition, would one day appear to help them find more food. Afterward,
the entire local group of Tasaday— 25 men, women, and children—
came out of the forest to join their companions at the landing place.

The Tasaday later described this dramatic event as a "great noise'
—sudden, thunderous, terrifying, and inexplicable. Nevertheless, even
that day and during all periods of subsequent contact, they have been
friendly, tolerant, and understanding toward the stream of visiting
anthropologists, linguists, news reporters, and photographers: albeit
often shy and sometimes bewildered. Their warm behavior with strang-
ers suggests that they never have known unfriendly outsiders: aggres-
sion to them seems inconceivable.

Even at first sight the Tasaday were clearly identifiable as Mongoloid
in physical type. Related racially to their neighbors and to the domi-
nant Filipino population, the Tasaday are relatively short with light to
medium dark skin, straight or wavy hair, and prominent cheekbones.
The other societies in the Philippines that still are dependent upon
hunting and gathering are the pygmoid Negritos (Aeta), found primarily
on the island of Luzon and racially quite distinct from the Mongoloid
majority.

The following data were obtained by Elizalde, anthropologist Robert
Fox. and linguist Teodoro Llamzon during the first period of contact at
the helicopter clearing on the edge of the forest, and later by anfhro-

56

pologists Frank Lynch and Carlos Fernandez during a second explora-
tion in March and April 1972 to the forest interior and to the caves in
which the Tasaday live permanently. On both occasions, the researchers
communicated best through a Manobo Blit woman named Igna who
also spoke T'boli. Her information then was translated by T’boli mem-
bers of the survey team who were familiar with the Philippine national
tongue (Tagalog) or English. It was early established that the Tasaday,
as do all peoples in the Philippines, spoke an Austronesian language,
one specifically related to the many Manobo tongues on Mindanao. It
appears that the Tasaday language has its closest ties to Manobo Blit;
nevertheless. Igna was able to understand less than half of their first
answers to endless questions, although she later gained fluency.

Habitation and social organization

The Tasaday permanently occupy or utilize a complex of three lime-
stone caves, located about a day's walk for them from the helicopter
clearing where they were first contacted. Access to the caves is diffi-
cult, as they are located 400-500 feet up a steep slope from a small
creek. According to the Tasaday, there are no other habitable caves in
this area of the forest. They further state that these caves were also
used by their forefathers, and evidences of a refuse heap in front of
the uppermost cave (the stone floor is swept daily with leaves) suggest

57

a lengthy period of past occupation. Other peoples in the Philippines
still live in caves seasonally, even subgroups of horticulturists such as
the Pala-wan living in the Ransang area of southv/estern Palawan
Island, but there is no local evidence of the use of caves for permanent
habitation since Paleolithic times, thousands of years ago. Tabon
Cave, also in Palawan, was occupied by Paleolithic hunter-gatherers
for more than 40,000 years. But it is truly startling to find a contem-
porary tribe of food gatherers who live permanently in caves.

The only local group of Tasaday contacted was composed of six
elementary families (the elementary family is the social unit of father,
mother, and unmarried children). Of the total of 25 individuals, there
were 12 adults; 11 of the 13 infants or children were male. Four elemen-
tary families were close blood relatives; indeed, the fathers of three
families were either children or nephews of the oldest couple in the
group.

Orphans and unmarried adults attached themselves to one of the
families. All of the families lived and slept together in the uppermost
cave, a warm, light, and airy chamber about 25 feet deep, 30 feet wide
across the mouth, and 10 feet high. Balayem, an unmarried young man
until April 1972, usually slept in the next lower cave, sometimes ac-
companied by younger children. As there appeared to be an optimum
balance between the present size of the local group of Tasaday and
the available food resources of the nearby forest, the group rarely
foraged more than a kilometer or two away from the caves and most of
the group was back in the main cave with sufficient food by midday.

The largest social unit of Tasaday society is the nasagbung or "local
group" formed by a number of closely related families. This local group
is not a band, as defined by anthropologists, since there is no formal
leader who is solely responsible for jural (lawfully binding) decisions.
Instead, decisions that involve group activities are shared by adults
and family heads, the most active and experienced among them as-
suming temporary leadership (in the style of a committee or board of
directors). The family is the basic social and economic unit, although
its functions are considerably modified by the small size of the local
group, shared food-gathering activities, and common residence in
a cave.

Married couples sleep independently in the cave with their infants
and younger children. Father and mother share the responsibility of
child care. Older children were observed to be almost inseparable,
playing, gathering fruit, and also sleeping in the same area. And they
might eat with any of the adults. When not busy, they were seen sitting
with arms around each other; penis play between individuals was noted.
Although the family also tends to be the basic economic unit, the Tasa-
day emphasized that food gathered each day was shared communally
among families when necessary. Their intention is that all members of
the local group, particularly the children, can have a meal. Food for all
families is prepared at one or the other of two hearths found in the cave
(a third fire being used at night for v/armlh). Mealtime is irregular, al-
58

Dolf Herras

though leftovers or newly cooked food are usually eaten in the morning
before the daily foraging begins. Food is also prepared around noon
when the foragers have returned from the forest and/or before dark.
Wild fruits are eaten at any time during the day.

The Tasaday may eat food raw, roasted, or cooked in the tough leaves
of a river-bank plant [CurcuUgo) twisted together and placed on the
coals at the edge of the fire. Their present practice of cooking palm
starch and chunks of meat in bamboo tubes, widespread among other
gatherer-hunters in Southeast Asia who possess metal tools, was un-
questionably introduced by Dafal. One set of flint and steel was also
given to them by Dafal, but they continue to make fire when necessary
by rotating a wooden drill between the palms of their hands against
another piece of soft wood and small bits of tinder. This type of fire-
making drill has not been observed by the writer among any other
Filipino people. The Tasaday usually carry a live ember when planning
to stay away from the cave overnight or when moving from one place
to another. Permanent fires are maintained in the cave. At night mem-
bers of the families cluster for additional warmth around the hearths.

There is little evidence of formal division of labor between the sexes.
The data of Carlos Fernandez seem to indicate that the women pos-
sibly bring more food back to the cave than the men, although the men
appear to be responsible for such relatively arduous tasks as climbing
trees for fruit and digging for deep wild yams.

The Tasaday rarely stay away from the caves overnight but, when
necessary, shelter is found in the spaces formed between buttress
roots of giant trees. Specific trees are selected near small streams and
creeks, which form the principal trails through the rugged terrain.

As among all peoples in the Philippines, the Tasaday have a bilateral
kinship system: that is, relationship is reckoned equally with both
father’s and mother’s kin. The kinship terms used in reference and
address are also similar to those found throughout the islands. Grand-
parents and grandchildren call each other by the same reciprocal
term. Fathers and mothers are distinguished terminologically from
uncles and aunts, but brothers and sisters are identified by the same
term, which is also extended to include cousins.

Social and kinship behavior undoubtedly reflect both the small size
of the group and the high mortality rate among infants and children.
Unusually affectionate ties were noted between parents and children:
the latter are carried constantly, even when they are three or four years
of age. A characteristic and touching scene is that of a Tasaday mother
walking down a stream bed with one child at her breast and another
riding on her back. Parents seem reluctant to stop nuzzling and smell-
ing their children: they do not kiss. Close and affectionate ties between
husband and wife were evident during a sudden downpour, he rushing
to prepare a temporary shelter of palm fronds for her and their younger
children. There are signs of a deep expression of intimacy among all
individuals: such close affiliation is not found generally within larger
and more sophisticated groups of people.

i

Stone scrapers made from flakes
of quartz and ground to a sharp edge
on one side are used to fashion
crude bamboo knives (opposite, top
and bottom). A woman (above) uses
her hands to comb the hair of another,
both wear the traditional skirts made
from leaves of a tutted herb.

59

To make fire the Tasaday rotate
a wooden drill between the palms
of their hands against another piece
of soft vrood and small bits of tinder.
Anthropologists had never before
seen this type of fire-making drill
among Filipino people.

There is apparently no such formal social or occupational role as that
of midwife among the Tasaday. Each mother was said to deliver her
baby alone, cutting the umbilical cord herself with the sharp edge of a
strip of bamboo: the father is responsible for burying the cord. Marriage
is said to be arranged by parents, as among most traditional societies
in the Philippines, but the advice of all adult members of the local
group is considered. Wedding gifts were also mentioned. Since the
group is small, there is little choice of spouse, and there may be an
imbalance between the number of marriageable boys and girls. (The
Tasaday group contacted had two unmarried young men; there were
11 male children, yet only 2 female youngsters.) Nevertheless, the
Tasaday insisted that they practice neither polygamy nor polyandry:
nor do they exchange or lend spouses, although these practices are
known among other people in the Philippines who still hunt and gather
in small local groups, such as the Negritos of Luzon. There seems to be
no ancient moral precedent for the Tasaday to ban polygamy; indeed,
their first male ancestor is said to have had two wives.

People who die of old age or injury (one man was recently killed by
a falling tree) are said to be simply covered with leaves near the place
where they died. People who die in the caves are carried into the nearby
forest for “burial.” There are no formal cemeteries.

Statements of the Tasaday indicate that the Sanduka and Tasafang
still live in the surrounding forest, though the Tasaday have not con-
tacted them in recent years and are not certain that these groups still
survive. Three men were born among a local group living at Lambong,
which possibly has died out as asocial unit. The husband of one woman
and his father traveled three nights to Sanduka territory in order to
obtain the young bride. This is the longest trip away from their caves
that any living Tasaday has made and was also the last contact v/ith a
neighboring group. The Tasaday have been asked by Manuel Elizalde
to confirm the existence of the other groups, but they are extremely
reluctant to leave the area surrounding their cave homes. The Tasaday
believe that as long as they remain at the caves they will be safe.

The population of the Tasaday seems never to have been large, and
to have been separated throughout its history into small local groups.
The size of the local group is restricted, among other factors, by the
level of technology achieved by the people, by their knowledge of how
to exploit the resources of the forest, and by their ability to forage
sufficient territory to support themselves. The local group of 25 Tasaday
contacted seems a near minimal number for human group survival. It
is consistent with norms of 20 to 30 people in local groups reported
for other hunter-gatherer forest societies found in other regions of
Southeast Asia.

The quest for food

When Dafal found them five years ago, the Tasaday were exclusively
food gatherers with a Stone Age technology. Without trapping or hunt-
ing devices, they were unable to feed on such larger animals in the
60

forest as wild pigs, deer, civets, and monkeys. Dafal introduced a num-
ber of traps and the bow and arrow: these are now used by some of
the men with limited success. Their major source of protein, however,
is still river life (tadpoles and crabs) collected by hand. Conservationists
would be pleased with the remark of one strong, active Tasaday man
who does not use the new traps or the bow and arrow: "The largest
animal 1 have ever killed is a frog." Dafal also taught them how to
obtain the edible starch of wild palms and "palm cabbage" with the
metal knives (bolos) he gave them. This exploitation of palms has
provided the Tasaday with an important, readily available new staple.
It is probable that palm starch will become their principal food, further
testimony to the impact that Dafal had upon Tasaday life-ways.

The Tasaday's principal sources of food in the past, and still of great
importance, are the roots (tubers) of yam vines (Dioscorea). These wild
yams are similar in properties and food value to the cultivated potato.
Used by food gatherers throughout Southeast Asia, at least nine dif-
ferent species of wild yams (Tasaday call them biking) are found in
the Philippine forests and their tubers are available throughout the
year. The tubers can be kept without spoiling for two weeks or more,
and seem to have deep meaning for the Tasaday. Thus, when one of
them was asked to name the most beautiful thing to him. he immedi-
ately answered; "For me, it is to find a large yam after digging deep in
the ground.” The yams are excavated with a digging stick traditionally
pointed with a stone scraper (or now with a metal knife).

When gathering yams, like other peoples in the Philippines, the
Tasaday may leave the head of the tuber attached to the vine in the
ground— a sort of incipient agriculture. Knowing the location of
the vines in their territory they can return the next year to reharvest the
yams. The wild fruit of such larger plants as the climbing palmlike
rattans, the wild banana, and the ground-level fruit of a wild ginger
are also a significant source of seasonal food. The fruit, leaves, and
flowers of many trees and bushes are also eaten.

Large and fleshy tadpoles of the giant mountain frog (Rana), small
crabs, and a rare species of the halfbeak fish still form their major
source of protein. These are abundant in the small creeks and are
caught with the hands by simply feeling in crevices among rocks. The
Tasaday have no weirs, nets, or other fishing devices. The giant frogs
are killed for food with a striking stick, and meat (particularly of the wild
pig, monkey, and rat) now occasionally is obtained v/ith traps intro-
duced by Dafal. Grubs from decaying fallen trees are a sought-after
food.

Tasaday do not gather wild honey (although it is prized by other
hunter-gatherers in the islands) since, as they say, "We do not know
how to drive away the bees." They rarely exploit birds for food and have
no term in their language for the egg.

In summary, the economy of the Tasaday is still based upon gather-
ing wild vegetable and animal life, even though supplemented in a
limited way by recently introduced trapping and hunting devices.

61

Chief scraping tool of the Tasaday
IS a stone (opposite) that has been
ground to a sharp edge on one side
and then attached by thongs to a
wooden handle: thin river pebbles
are used for the stones. Man above
uses an edge-ground scraper to
fashion a wooden implement.

Health, dress, and adornment

The Tasaday appear to be in fair physical condition despite problems
of food supply and the damp, high-altitude forest in which they live
without permanent shelter and protective clothing. The active children
and younger individuals display muscular bodies— vaulting across
streams with poles, climbing trees for fruit, and moving swiftly with
great agility along the slippery bottoms of creeks. The hands of younger
individuals strikingly resemble those of the aged, probably the result
of their continual use in the absence of tools or other technology for
exploiting the environment. Older Tasaday appear wan and sleep much
of the time throughout the day; life span is short, with only one couple
estimated to be as old as 50 or so. Goiter is present and one young
man had a severe fungous disorder of the skin. Another boy had a pair
of congenitally webbed toes. A retarded albino child with multiple
rashlike patches and ulcers of the skin (his mother is dead and his
father must carry him throughout the day) seemed to have little chance
of surviving long. Genealogical data indicate that an average of only
two children per family survive to the age of two or three years; only
then are they given personal names.

Dental examinations revealed no cavities (caries), but diseases of
the gums (pyorrhea) were seen. Most adults chew betel nuts (from a
wild Areca palm) mixed with slaked lime (from the shells of land snails)
and betel leaf (from a type of pepper plant). They file blackened f.^nt
teeth with abrasive stones from the streams. The Tasaday use their
teeth in lieu of fools, often using them in rounding a stick for use as a
fire drill, in cutting a vine to be used as a belt, or in tearing away the
skin or bark from plants.

Brief skirts and small coverings for the genitals (G-strings) are
fashioned from the long, tough leaves of a tufted herb {Curculigo). The
leaves resemble those of a ground orchid [Spathoglottis) which may
also be worn. The men wear one or two Curculigo leaves running be-
tween their legs and under and over a vine waistband. Women wear a
bunch of similar leaves (or a broader, still unidentified leaf) held up
with a vine belt around the waist, an attractive tassel effect being
achieved by the pointed ends of the leaves as they fall. They now prize
the cloth that Dafal gave them for G-strings and skirts.

The hair of men and women usually reaches to the waist; sometimes
it is worn by women in a bun. The men with long hair may tie it at the
nape with a ribbon made of a plant leaf. The men and women spend
considerable time combing their long hair with their fingers, but use
no implement as a comb.

Ornaments seemed limited to brass earrings worn by both men and
women as a series of rings attached from the outer edge (helix) of each
ear to the lobe. According to the Tasaday, these rings were formerly
made of plants, and were replaced by brass wire obtained from Dafal.
Not one glass, stone, or shell bead was observed among the Tasaday.
further evidence of their isolation for hundreds of years from ofher
peoples. Glass and semiprecious stone beads have been a major item
62

of trade in the Philippines and in island Southeast Asia since about
500 B.c. Tasaday do not even use the black or white Job's-tears (seeds
of the grass Coix lachryma-jobi) that are widely worn as necklaces by
minority peoples throughout the Philippines.

Tasaday adults of both sexes tattoo themselves with thorns and dark
plant sap on the inner side of the arms and legs, although the geomet-
ric designs fade rapidly. The early Spanish writers described natives
of the southern Philippines as Pintados ("painted people") because of
their extensive body tattoos. Tattooing is also characteristic of most
minority groups in the islands, including the mountain neighbors of
the Tasaday in Mindanao. Such evidence is to be considered along
with their language in establishing the Tasaday’s common cultural
origins with other Filipino peoples.

Religion and philosophy

Tasaday attribute all of their knowledge and material possessions
(before Dafal) to their ancestors— the fangut. Their first ancestor is
called Bengbang: he is said to have had two wives— Dakwe and Fiyuwe.
These women bore two sons (Sanumabat and Lantoy) and a daughter
(Mangi) from whom all Tasaday are said to have descended. Tasaday
relationships with the supernatural primarily involve the more recently
dead (sugoy or "soul relatives") whom they saythey see in their dreams.
The dead are said to dwell in the tops of trees and continually to inter-
act with the living by helping them find food. Tasaday also speak of
Salungal (the "owner of the mountains") as aiding them; he too is held
to live in the crown of the forest. One informant described a type of
divination in which measurements are made on the arm with the out-
stretched fingers of the hand. If the remeasurements of the spans of
the hand on the arm are the same or longer, then the answer to a
question posed is yes; if shorter, no. Questions addressed to the dead,
such as where food can be found, are answered in this manner. Similar
divination practices are recorded among surrounding peoples.

Rituals were not observed among the Tasaday. Their religious beliefs
and practices seem poorly developed as compared with those of
neighboring agricultural people, and focus primarily on relationships
with the dead. The origin myth of the Tasaday is similar to although less
detailed than that of the Manobo Blit and T’boli. These and other social,
and cultural traits the Tasaday share with other Manobo groups in
southeastern Mindanao indicate a widespread, older culture basic to
this region.

Living in isolation for hundreds of years with an extremely primitive
technology and dependent upon food gathering, the Tasaday have a
philosophy or world view that expresses deep and intimate relationships
with the surrounding environment. Their universe is the canopied rain
forest. Not only are the dead believed to dwell in the crowns of the
towering trees, the trees also form a ceiling over their known world.
In contrast, neighboring peoples with whom the Tasaday share features
of an ancient culture speak of their dead and deities as living in the sky.

63

Food gatherers have been described as "natural man,” and this the
Tasaday are. They have depended entirely upon spontaneous products
of nature for their wants and needs. Moreover, they live in balance
with the rain forest— without disturbing ecological processes. Their
life contrasts sharply to that of modern, complex technology that re-
shapes the environment drastically.

Father and child demonstrate the
affectionate ties that exist between
Tasaday parents and offspring. Parents
frequently nuzzle their children and
carry them constantly, even
to the age of three or four.

Past and future

It seems clear that the Tasaday have survived with a Stone Age tech-
nology in a high mountain forest of southern Mindanao since pre-
historic times. Evidence is that they are not a recently "banished
people" who splintered from a neighboring group because of conflicts
or who fled into the mountains to escape smallpox or other disease.
The Tasaday retain distinctive elements of an ancient culture, indicat-
ing that they long have been isolated from the influences and develop-
ments that have changed other peoples with whom they have genetic
ties.

Linguistic and cultural evidences demonstrate that the Tasaday have
their closest relationships to the Manobo Blit, their mountain neigh-
bors. The Tasaday and Blit form, in turn, a subgroup of a larger cultural-
linguistic group in Mindanao described as the Manobo. The scattered
distribution of the many Manobo groups, plus linguistic and cultural

f

data, indicate that they once formed a closely related people who
spread throughout Mindanao during the late Neolithic Period (probably
before 1000 b.c.).

Jesuit priest Teodoro Llamzon, linguist at the Ateneo de Manila
University, compared 150 words from 13 Mindanao languages, includ-
ing Tasaday. His method measures the rate of retention of basic vo-
cabulary, from which he has calculated the approximate date when
Tasaday seem to have separated from the other Manobo speakers.
Father Llamzon reports that the probable time of separation of Tasaday
from Blit— the closest linguistic group— was about 700 years ago (13th
century a.d.).

It is most unlikely, however, that the Tasaday separated from the Blit
people as they are today. The Blit are agriculturist, and it seems im-
probable that in 700 years the Tasaday would have lost all knowledge
of agriculture, metal fools, and hunting and trapping devices that would
have added security for them in the forest. It would also mean that the
Tasaday, after losing knowledge of metal tools and weapons, then
would independently develop stone implements that show close rela-
tionships with similar artifacts recovered in prehistoric excavations
throughout the Philippines. A more reasonable reconstruction would
seem to be that the Blit were former gatherers who separated from the
Tasaday to become agriculturists.

But what does the future hold for the Tasaday? News of their exis-
tence emotionally touched many who live in a troubled complex world.
Some people reacted wishfully, as if the Garden of Eden had been
found. It was widely insisted that the Tasaday remain free to live with-
out external pressure. The outside world's concern for the Tasaday
recalls that past contacts leading to conquests of primitive and peasant
peoples have produced some of the blackest chapters in human
history.

Tasaday contact with the outside world seems to have been inevi-
table. Their isolation was doomed to yield to the loggers and neighbor-
ing agriculturists, who are invading their forest sanctuary. The items
of material culture they have already received from Dafal have created
new needs and wants among the Tasaday: time has caught up with
them.

In April 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos declared the forests
the Tasaday occupy as a Philippine national reserve. The conservation
of these forests is equally important to the preservation of the water-
sheds that support agricultural development for an expanding popula-
tion in the adjacent lowlands. A program of research has been prepared
by PANAMIN designed to provide fuller data on theTasaday, one of the
world's unique peoples. Hopefully the work will help the Tasaday to
select a program of development that will prepare them for new experi-
ences, and to cope with the social problems they can expect to face.
Clearly, when a people are faced with change, as are the Tasaday, it
should be with pride and dignity, at their own pace, and by their own
choice.

65

The Psychic Boom

iiSt

Psychic phenomena— ranging from astrology to ESP to biofeedback—
have stimulated considerable interest and controversy in recent years.
Do they mean anything? Are they true?

On the opposite page is the Tarot card called the Devil— Key 15 from
the Major Arcana. According to Eden Gray, author of The Tarot Re-
vealed. when this card appears in a reading right side up (as shown),
it means "domination of matter over spirit. Sensation divorced from
understanding. . . . Bondage to the material. . . . Black magic.” Turned
around the other way, upside dov/n, it indicates "the beginning of
spiritual understanding."

Key 15 in its two configurations neatly illustrates the duality of our
response to psychic phenomena. A real "psychic" boom has developed
in the Western world during the last few years, encompassing interests
from astrology to Zen meditation. Many individuals simply view such
interests as modern manifestations of black magic— superstitions
growing out of perennial human gullibility. Many others, however,
believe psychic happenings are evidence of a cosmic force as yet
poorly understood— and sometimes deliberately rejected— by modern
science. Magic and superstition, or spiritual understanding— which
do they represent?

Varieties of psychic phenomena

In the popular understanding, "psychic” covers a motley accumulation
of beliefs and happenings that defy a single definition. It may include
occult, apparently supernatural, and (to some) irrational topics such
as fortune telling (by astrology. Tarot, the / Ching, palmistry, etc.),
character analysis by graphology or phrenology: dowsing (water witch
ing); faith healing (perhaps including acupuncture, which involves
treatment of disease by inserting needles at specific points in the body),
witchcraft: poltergeists: out-of-the-body experiences: unidentified
flying objects (UFOs): and reincarnation and communication with the
dead. It may include phenomena within the realm of parapsychology,
which many responsible scientific investigators reject as unproven
but which others accept as verified: extrasensory perception or ESP
(telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition) and psychokinesis or PK
(moving objects by mental effort). And finally it generally encompasses
v/hat have recently come to be called "altered states of conscious
ness" — hypnosis, dreaming, drug-induced states, and established
Eastern forms of meditation such as Yoga, Zen, and transcendental
meditation — as well as studies involving deliberate control of brain
states.

All of these topics have at one time or another been categorized
under psychic phenomena. In fact, hov/ever, they should probably not
be lumped together. From the point of view of most scientists, some
have no status at all and probably no basis in fact: most (but not all)

SAMUEL MOFFAT, a science nriter.
is a contributing editor for the
Brilannica Yearbook of Science
and the Future.

68

Tarot cards originated probably
in the 14th century to interpret
the present and predict the future. The
22 cards on this page comprise the
Greater Arcana; a second deck of 56
cards is the Lesser Arcana. Each card
is subject to specific interpretations:
the Sun, for example, suggests
triumph, success, happiness. On the
opposite page, a "diviner" in a central
European village deals out a deck that
has been placed before her facedown
by the "questioner." The diviner must
spread the deck In a prearranged
manner, and the pattern that is formed
is then used to tell the questioner's
fortune.

Beftmann Archive

Each constellation making up the 12
signs ol the zodiac (above) in many
cultures was believed to dominate
a specific organ ol the human body.
The first known depiction of witches
on broomsticks appeared in a French
book of the 15th century. The human
face (opposite) was thought to be
divided into sections that had specific
attributes (top) and that were
dominated by particular stars
and constellations (bottom).

of the occult topics fall in this category. Altered states of conscious-
ness and deliberate control of brain states are generally accepted as
fields of serious research. Parapsychology (ESP and PK) represents
a controversial area, with both ardent defenders and skeptical dis-
believers. The public thinks of these three broad subject areas as
related even though they may not be. Any attempt to describe the
psychic boom must acknowledge this confusion as part of the situation.

A booming phenomenon

Prominent people from almost every walk of life have expressed serious
interest in psychic phenomena. Actress Marlene Dietrich tried to per-
suade the secretary-general of the United Nations to reschedule a
General Assembly meeting because the astrological portents were
bad fora certain time. James Reston, one of the world's leading journal-
ists, was treated by acupuncture for pain relief following an appendec-
tomy in China; his impressions appeared on page one of the New York
Times and stimulated wide interest in this ancient practice. The Beatles
traveled from Britain to India for an intensive course in transcendental
meditation, which took on new popularity in Europe and the United
States. A prominent U.S. clergyman. Bishop James A. Pike, revealed
to the world his belief that he had communicated through mediums
with his dead son from "the other side.”

Courtesy, Bibliotheque Notionole

f'

r» 'par/ani'

^

Culver Pictures

The exact amount of popular interest, stimulated by events such as
these, is difficult to measure. To a certain extent, however, the com-
munications media mirror it. Almost 70% of the daily newspapers in the
United States carry horoscope columns, according to one estimate.
An astrologer appeared on the cover of Time, and a witch was featured
on the cover of Look. A novel about the exorcism of a demon headed
the best-seller list for 17 weeks. A publisher specializing in occult
books reported that between 1960 and 1971 his business increased
25-fold. The practice of witchcraft was notably increased following
the appearance of the movie Rosemary's Baby, in which a witches’
coven practiced black magic. These and many other indicators make
it clear that millions of Americans take some if not all psychic phe-
nomena seriously.

A product of our times

Commentators have offered many reasons for this upsurge of interest.
Most observers seem to arrive at a similar conciusion; The materiai
needs of many Americans and Europeans are being met to a greater
degree than ever before. Accordingiy, these people have the time
and inclination to look more closely at other aspects of life—its mean-
ing, its value, its spiritual and philosophical aspects. They often
become convinced that neither the traditional religions nor modern
science has solved mankind's massive social problems— the threat
of nuclear war, the inequities of poverty and racial discrimination,
and many others.

Searching for new ways to improve mankind, many persons have
actively challenged established values and approaches. They question
the findings of "rational" science and may seek new avenues to ful-
fillment and involvement through an exotic experience such as medita-
tion or exposure to the occult. They may argue that if rational man
cannot control his own future, why not accept astrology and let the
stars do it?

The occult and psychic boom unquestionably has its faddish ele-
ments. There are charlatans and fast-buck artists capitalizing on it just
as they do on any other human interest. Even people who are very open
to supernatural concepts, who sincerely believe that psychic events
and energies influence the lives of everyone, acknowledge that a large
proportion of the activity they observe may be fakery. There is sleight-
of-hand trickery or carnival showmanship passing for true ESP, they
say, and there are promoters pretending to be psychic v/ho are solely
interested in commercial or individual exploitation. Nevertheless, the
movement appears to be too widespread to write off as a passing fancy.
It seems obvious to many observers that the interest in the occult is a
response to current elemental human needs.

The reaction of science

Given the tremendous public interest in understanding psychic events
better, many laymen are puzzled that science has not taken psychic

Betrmonrt Archive

71

Don Snyder

k "white" witch (above), one who
makes good magic, practices her art
with the necessary tools around her.
On her altar, inside the stump of an
apple tree, are shells, a tarot card,
a butterfly, cornmeal, and a lighted
candle. She holds a mink skin, wears
a pendant-symbol of the "feet of
Vishnu" on her forehead, and has
a headdress made of cock feathers,
beads, tassels, and pieces of amber
and jade. Death masks (right) are
believed to contain spirits
of the departed in some cultures.
Baba Ram Das (opposite), a guru,
teaches transcendental meditation.

phenomena more seriously. Some scientists have clearly rejected the
subject out of hand. One of the great physicists of the 19th century,
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz, stated categorically, I
cannot believe ... in the transmission of thought from one person to
another independently of the recognized channels of sensation. It is
clearly impossible.”

Some present-day psychologists are almost as outspoken. Their
point of view is well summarized in the comment on ESP contained in
a college textbook published in 1970, Psychology Today: An Intro-
duction, prepared by 38 contemporary psychologists. It states that
"scientists today, for the most part, remain skeptical of ESP. It is axi-
omatic in science that a phenomenon be repeatable and predictable.
To demonstrate conclusively that ESP exists, a scientist would have to
be able to reproduce it whenever he liked. To date, this has proved
impossible. . . . The best that can be said of ESP, then, is that it remains
an unproven but fascinating phenomenon."

This is an area of heated controversy. In 1956 George R. Price of
the University of Minnesota suggested in Science that results of some
of the most widely accepted ESP experiments could have been pro-
duced fraudulently. Thirteen years later Edward U. Condon of the
University of Colorado wrote, "Flying saucers and astrology are not
the only pseudo-sciences which have a considerable following among
us. There used to be spiritualism, there continues to be extrasensory
perception, psychokinesis, and a host of others. ... In my view, pub-
lishers who publish or teachers who teach any of the pseudo-sciences
as established truth should, on being found guilty, be publicly horse-

72

whipped, and forever banned from further activity in these usually
honorable professions."

Nevertheless, some researchers who are regarded with high esteem
have been convinced of the reality of certain psychic phenomena. Carl
Jung, the Swiss psychoanalyst who was a major figure in modern
studies of the mind, believed in the existence of spirits and himself had
prophetic dreams. William James, the first great American psycholo-
gist, served as president of the Society for Psychical Research (London,
England) and investigated several phenomena himself, including the
accomplishments of a medium. Of this particular woman he said, "[I]
believe she has supernormal powers." But he also exposed another
medium, about v/hom he wrote, "Everyone agrees she cheats in the
most barefaced manner whenever she gets an opportunity."

An experimental milestone

This article concentrates to a certain extent on laboratory experiments
involving ESP because that is where the most definitive scientific in-
vestigations of disputed psychic occurrences have been carried out.
While reports of spontaneous psychic phenomena are plentiful, scien-
tists prefer to set up experimental situations where various sources of
error, such as observer bias, can be ruled out. This has been most
possible to achieve with ESP. If modern science rejects ESP, it is un-
likely that many of the occult topics listed earlier v/ill become accepted
areas for serious investigation for some time.

The leading investigator of ESP for several decades has been Joseph
Banks Rhine, first at Duke University and then at the Foundation for
Research on the Nature of Man, at Durham, N.C. According to Martin
Gardner, author of a book debunking pseudoscientists, Rhine "has
done more than any one man in history to give scientific respectability
to the investigation of psychic forces." In countless experiments,
Rhine, his v/ife Louisa, and their associates attempted to produce
acceptable evidence of ESP, and for many years their techniques set
the pattern for research in the field.

The principal technique utilized by Rhine involved a pack of cards
with only five symbols. Five cards with each symbol make up a pack of
25 cards. If an individual were to guess the identity of each card in
order, without seeing it, just on the basis of chance he would get one
out of five correct. An individual with ESP, hov/ever. should score
considerably higher. The odds against chance occurrence of any
particular score can be calculated statistically. Rhine conducted what
he considered a milestone experiment in 1933.

The subject. Hubert E. Pearce, Jr., had performed well on preliminary
trials (once scoring 25 "hits" out of 25) and was to be given a particu-
larly careful test with "conditions thoroughly adequate to exclude all
the factors that could produce extrachance scores except ESP."
Pearce was in the Duke University library, 100 yards away from a build-
ing where Rhine's assistant, J. G. Pratt, was to turn over the cards. They
conducted 12 runs or 300 trials. Pure chance would have produced 60

Five of er^ch of the above ESP cards
'.crsld'jted the deck used by
extras'. ', .-.oy oerception researcher
j 8 Phine. Without seeing
the cards 3 subiect tries (o guess
which sy'r.bcl nas been turned up.

hits, but Pearce scored 119. “A score as large as this,” Rhine wrote,

. . would be expected to occur by chance only once in approximately
a quadrillion (1,000,000,000,000,009) of such experiments." Therefore,
chance could be ruled out. "There are no known sensory processes
that could be supposed to operate under these conditions. . . . We . . •
were forced to decide that, whatever clairvoyance or the extrasensory
perception of objects is, this was a case of it.”

Experiments such as these have been criticized seriously by other
scientists, however. They point out that the individuals who perform
ESP poorly have been screened out so that good performers like
Pearce are likely to exist simply on the basis of chance. This argument
gains some strength because those who do ESP well, either with card
tests or similar procedures, almost always lose their ability after a
period of time— as if the law of averages were catching up with them.

In defense of selected subjects, those who believe the ESP tests are
valid say that not everyone has highly refined psychic ability, just as
few people can play the piano professionally, so that selection is
perfectly legitimate. Regarding the second criticism, Charles T. Tart,
an associate professor of psychology at the University of California,
Davis, pointed out that the typical ESP card guessing procedure could
be expected to destroy rather than enhance the ability to perform well.

Tart assumes that the ability to use ESP is latent in subjects and must
be learned to some extent. But many experiments have shown that
learning occurs when someone receives an immediate reward for
desired activity (or punishment for incorrect activity). In card guessing,
however, the subject does not know the result of each guess; he only
finds out how well he has done at the end of one or several runs. "Any
psychologist," Tart notes, "if asked to have any organism learn under
[such conditions], will throw up his hands in disgust. . . . We have,
unknowingly yet systematically, been extinguishing the operation of
ESP” in those tested.

Another criticism of typical ESP results is that they are often sub-
jected to repeated statistical analyses until the results bear fruit. And,
aside from the statistics, ESP is greeted with skepticism by some be-
cause it seems to violate known principles of physics. It apparently
works as well over great distances as at short range, for example, while
other forms of energy transfer follow the inverse square law: at twice
the distance the received energy will be one-fourth as great.

74

ESP investigation in the 1970s

Some of the past criticisms may become outdated as evidence from
the present generation of experimenters accumulates. They are using
new techniques, including the application of automation and sophis-
ticated electronic circuitry, to overcome past objections. There are
several centers in the United States carrying out extensive research in
ESP and PK, including laboratories at the University of Virginia; the
American Society for Psychical Research, New York City; Maimonides
Medical Center, Brooklyn, N.Y.; City University of New York; the Foun-
dation for Research on the Nature of Man and the Psychical Research
Foundation, both in Durham, N.C.; and the University of California at
Los Angeles.

A great deal of research also is being conducted in other nations.
Significant activity has taken place in the Soviet Union and Eastern
Europe, but accurate scientific reports are difficult to obtain in the
West. The publication in 1970 of the book Psychic Discoveries Behind
the Iron Curtain by Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder stimulated
considerable interest in the United States and Europe. The book con-
tains little quantitative detail, though, and many ESP investigators in
the United States are making concerted efforts to obtain data and
relevant technical information from the researchers cited by these
authors so that experiments can be repeated, and either confirmed or
disproved.

An example of the modern approach in parapsychology was de-
scribed in the journal Science late in 1970: "Simple equipment is now
available for counting hits in predicting which of four lights will be lit
at random {averaging Vio of a second later), when the randomness is
based on the radioactivity of strontium-90. In one recent study with
such equipment 3 subjects out of 100 showed very outstanding results
which, taken together, were very improbable [probability less than one
in one billion). Special precautions were taken to prevent recording
errors, to check the randomness of the generated numbers, and to
eliminate the possibility of fraud by the test subjects.” Somewhat
similar equipment has been used to teach both clairvoyance and pre-
cognition to a single subject; the machine immediately notified her
she was successful when she chose the right target (in this case 35-mm
color transparencies).

Researchers also are reporting increasingly that altered states of
consciousness, such as occur during hypnosis or dreaming, may in-
crease the frequency of ESP. Staff members at the William C. Mennin-
ger Dream Laboratory of Maimonides Medical Center have investigated
this phenomenon for several years. Subjects are allowed to go to sleep
in the laboratory while connected to electroencephalographic equip-
ment that measures their brain waves and detects eye movements that
occur during dreaming. In a separate room a "sender" attempts to
influence a subject's dreams by looking at a picture.

As reported in Science. "Independent judges, acting blindly, have
ranked the correspondences between the picture and the dream tran-

75

script significantly higher than control pictures. This has also been
done with hypnotic dreams.” This approach is viewed as an advance
in technique because it provides a way of stimulating ESP under con-
ditions more closely approximating those associated with spontaneous
ESP reported outside the laboratory, but still provides for laboratory
controls. Investigation of such "psychically favorable states" is still at
an early stage of development, however.

Is acceptance coming?

Rhine has charged that a majority of psychologists and a large number
of other scientists refuse to accept ESP and PK because they cannot
be explained by the present laws of physical science. Accepting a
supernatural explanation "would cost [psychology] its hard-earned
status as a natural science . . . and throw it back into the classification
with the occult.”

Is the “science establishment" being unreasonable in rejecting the
evidence for the existence of ESP? Gardner Murphy, a George Wash-
ington University psychologist who was president of the American
Society for Psychical Research from 1962 to 1971, views the matter
more philosophically. In an interview published in Psychic magazine
in 1970, Murphy said, "It takes an enormous amount of powerful evi-
dence, with a new theory, before the orderly system can be shaken. It’s
not enough to have a lot of new facts, you've got to have a new theory
as well. So in orderto demolish the old theory, you’ve got to have a new
one which is compatible both with the old data and the new data. . . •

“So when people question, 'Why don’t scientists accept ESP?’ I can
only answer, ’Well, what do they accept that doesn't fit into an orderly
scientific framework?”’

There are other reasons why scientists remain skeptical about
psychic phenomena despite evidence that a minority accepts. For one
thing, the whole field of psychic occurrences has been the domain
not only of reputable scientists but also of quacks and frauds. More
than one medium has been caught faking contact with spirits of the
dead.

Another factor in scientists’ skepticism is that until quite recently
potentially reproducible experiments have not been possible. ESP
ability faded in the laboratory, for example. But new approaches with
psychically favorable states may overcome this difficulty. And other
methodological improvements should enhance the overall quality of
the research even further.

A final factor is the nature of psychology itself. It is not only a young
science but also an exceedingly complex one. Observations in physics
and chemistry can be relatively simple compared to those involving
human behavior. Many observers believe that attempts to make psy-
chology a natural science have led to premature theorizing and gross
oversimplifications. This also applies to parapsychology. Much more
information is needed, together vdth small-scale theories that can be
tested, before it will be possible to drav/ up definitive master hypoth-

76

eses Psychologists can be considered to be at the level of Gahleo
When he was measuring the acceleration of falling obiects; they are
not ready to devise a scheme as grand as Newton’s laws of grav.tation

"wrsuitable Changes, parapsychology and perhaps ce.ain othe.
psychic phenomena may win greater acceptance ^Oth-cenm^ry

scientists. For many years parapsychology ha o allowed in-

house of science in the United States, but ^

side the front door. In December 1969 the Parapsychological Assoca

tion. which includes almost all of the -^°9nized

outside the Communist world, J world’s largest

Association for the Advancement of Science,
organization of practicing scientists.

The new frontier domains un-

Where will psychic research go nex . „ ,accs 1 For example,

.oubtedl, wn, be ellered states of

modern physiological measuring tec^mo^^ seientilic study of
tensively to the study of sleep largely accepted as a

hypnosis has advanced recent trends are pushing

legitimate subject for psycholog • areater interest in the

both psychology and psychic research toward greater

Other altered states. altered state,

one is the deliberate eifort by many people to enter

either by taking such drugs as ,^,5 activity, few scien-

hypnosis or some meditative process^ (Despite

-0 data have been collected aPo« ,,,

growing use of o, consciousness,

brain waves and therefore th . „ A<^rs from the outside. Tart

It may not be sufficient just because it does

argues that much current resea -Experiences of ecstasy,

not focus on the real experiences ^ beauty, space/time tran-

mystical union, other dimension^ common in ASCs,

scendence. transpersonal knowle ge. conventional scientific

are simply not treated adequately

approaches." develop "state-specific sci-

The solution, according to la . 3^3 able to achieve

ences,” utilizing skilled, trained ^^3,3 can approach

certain states of method-making observations

Specific problems using state, theorizing about their

that can be confirmed by bvoredicting the consequences

findings, and then testing their e Observing an altered state

and seeing whether the theories ^ j3l^3 account that

bply from m.n-s normal, blurt ““'^god. lust fh, way a com-

the pattern of communication may ^ approach to ASCs,

puter’s program may be chang _ understand them

Tart believes that modern psychology

adequately. 77

Nudity is an important part ol many
mystic rituals. The man below has
painted his body silver to celebrate
the rites ol Pan.

Dc- S'.c*'

"Biofeedback,” or voluntary control of internal states, already has
been used in many laboratories to enable individuals to alter brain
waves, blood pressure, blood flow, heart rate, and muscle tension. It
is sometimes called autogenic training. The technique involves detect-
ing the variable to be controlled, displaying information about it on a
dial or with a light or sound, and then letting the subject practice con-
trolling it. The procedure has been used experimentally in treating high
blood pressure and migraine headaches.

While biofeedback may eventually have wide application in medicine,
psychic researchers are concerned principally with its usefulness in
investigating states of consciousness. Much work has been done with
alpha waves, which are brain impulses that occur with a frequency of
between 8 and 12 cycles per second. Most subjects are able to control
their alpha waves fairly easily. About 90% of us can produce them just
by closing our eyes. But with suitable training, subjects have learned
to suppress them with their eyes closed, to produce them with their
eyes open, or to alter the alpha frequency. The waves are detected with
an electroencephalograph machine and then displayed to a subject
as a sound or a light.

Alpha waves generally are associated with an alert yet passive mental
state, lacking visual images. Their appearance is related to several
ASCs. According to some studies, individuals who are highly suscep-
tible to hypnosis produce alpha rhythms more often than those who
are not so susceptible. Electroencephalographic studies of Zen monks
have revealed that during meditation their brains produce alpha waves
principally. Yogis have been shown to produce more of these waves
while meditating, and individuals practicing transcendental meditation
(the procedure taught the Beatles by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi) have
more regular alpha waves, with increased amplitude.

Experienced Eastern mystics who truly have mastered meditation
techniques can do much more than manipulate their alpha waves,
however. In 1970 researchers at the Menninger Foundation in Topeka,
Kan., spent several weeks examining an Indian yogi, Swami Rama of
Rishikesh and the Himalayas. The swami could voluntarily maintain
his production of theta and delta brain waves. Theta waves (four to
seven cycles per second) often appear when a person becomes drowsy
and eases toward sleep; delta waves (about one per second, with very
large amplitude) are usually associated only with deep sleep. During
one five-minute test, Swami Rama demonstrated theta waves 75% of
the time. The next day he deliberately produced delta waves for 25
minutes: he appeared asleep and even snored gently, but afterward
he could repeat almost perfectly things said in the room at that time.

These are not just exercises but have the potential for teaching
science some of the as yet unexplained workings of the human brain.
When in the theta state (with alpha or beta also present 50% of the
time), Sv«mi Rama became aware of many unconscious thoughts he
normally suppressed. The swami maintained that when in a state of
deep reverie he could heal himself of certain ailments by giving the

78

life w=ga2>ne, courtesy, Mo.nton.des AAed.col Center

PmZ

f C!

of images. Elmer E. Green, who
30dy suitable instructions in the or ^ 0(1 that Swami Rama

directed the research at in the manner of Edgar

"could diagnose physical ai thousands of medical diag-

Cayce [an American psyc ic vv appeared to be totally

noses while in hypnotic trances], excep

conscious.” 79

Voluntary production and suppression
of the brain impulses called alpha
waves are monitored at the Klaimonides
Medical Center in New York.

Alpha waves usually are associated
with an alert but passive mental state

Green says: "The entrance, or key, to all these inner processes, we
are beginning to believe, is a particular state of consciousness [or
‘reverie’ that] can be approached by means of theta brain wave training
in which the gap between conscious and unconscious processes is
voluntarily narrowed, and temporarily eliminated when useful. When
that self-regulated reverie is established, the body can apparently be
programmed at will and the instructions given will be carried out."

Another meditative procedure that is attracting scientific attention
is transcendental meditation. It does not require the years of training
that Yoga or Zen necessitate, nor does the practitioner need to master
intricate physical positions or exercises. Because it is easy to learn and
is reproducible in physiological terms, scientists believe it may provide
a useful approach for further studies.

Relationship beuveen alpha waves
and active attention is tested
by showing a young man
in an alpha state slides of flowers
and a nude When the flowers appear,
the alpha state continues,
but with the nude it disappears.

“Radiesthesia” and “radionics”

An area of psychic research that is much more controversial involves
studying the sensitivity of living organisms to radiation of any sort
from any source. This sensitivity is known as radiesthesia, and involves
the five commonly recognized senses. Certain investigators believe
that another manifestation of radiesthesia may be involved in such
psychic phenomena as reading print or identifying colors with the
hands (eyeless sight), a medium's communication with someone by
other than the five senses while utilizing some object associated v/ith
that person (object reading, or psychometry), and dowsing. The exis-
tence of a "sixth sense” might explain ESP and PK as well.

from Ph.O*3

Modern physical scientists generally have repudiated the hypothes.s
that the body "transmits” and "receives” electromagnetic radiation,
with the brain as a source and the body serving as an ' antenna, be-
lauarbrain waves are far too weak even to be detected a very s ort
distance from the head. But a limited number of scientists believe that
there are unrecognized forms of energy originating from "''*"9
ncludrg plants. Could there be "psychic forces” or "psychic fields.

including pian than the brain? Numerous writers have

or some other power generator than tne o a
devised scdsme, .o eccoun, to, such

-theories” are more in the tradition of the occult than that of science^
Many are based on Eastern philosoph.s. ^
faith at this point because they cannot be tested by

method. aotict-; have begun investigating

Nevertheless, some Western sc,

radiesthesia and radionics (using the trail marked out

involved). At least initially they wil 9 '^°^ Soviet Union. Specifically,

--- d..h^

gathering technical information g ^ - .,97., ^uh specifi-

search. He returned from repeat some of

cations for building several evic invented by Victor Ada-

the Soviet work. One instrumen ^jf ^ints of low electrical

menko, a Soviet physicist, v/ho use 1 •,„ plants. In hu-

resistance in the human body, m o places where needles

mans almost all of the points con orm with

are placed in acupuncture points, radioactivity can be

phosphorus at one of AdaLnko suggests this device

detected at other acupuncture p low-resistance circuits in

has identified a new circulate^ channels believed .0

the body that coincide with the meridians o

connect acupuncture points. .-ePcan psychic researchers is

A s,»nd soviet tool of inlero« '0 Ame„os P ,

a photographic device J pulse generator, some-

Valentina. It utilizes a high- req ^pyce photographs. Developed

what like a radar power source, H ,inger

films show "flares" escaping ro discharge involves cold

or the leaf of a plant. . ti^s change with the emotional

electron emissions. Their c ara ^ healer v/hen "m the

state or health of an i^^ividua - ^ ^^3 P

healing mode” or when not hea i g- out„ne of

cut off. the radiation pattern on film

the leaf. , . ^-nhisticated tests on certain women

The Soviets also conduc e objects by will

,te, believed bed demonstr.led Ibe

The eltects of stress and mutilation
on living tissues can be seen
in the photographs above
and Oh the opposite page. They were
taken with a device similar to one
invented by Semyon Kirlian, which
uses a high-frequency electrical pulse
generator to produce its images.
The leal above was photographed
in this way when freshly cut (left)
and alter being gashed with a needle
(right) The tip of a right index linger
on the opposite page was
photographed when the subject
was relaxed (top) and while the same
subject was undergoing emotional
stress (bottom).

power (psychokinesis). Tiller believes that this work, combined with
the other Soviet projects, opens exciting new possibilities for future
research. He began, therefore, to duplicate Soviet equipment in order
to measure the variables involved and to try to develop equations for
characterizing the events.

The “new physics” — or not?

The Oxford University zoologist Sir Alister Hardy has writteri. The
discovery that individuals are somehow in communication with one
another by extrasensory means is, if true, undoubtedly one of the most
revolutionary discoveries ever made. It is a biological phenomenon, i^
true, almost as fundamental as that of gravity between material bodies.
Assuming that some of the phenomena investigated by the Soviet
scientists and others relate to ESP, this statement takes on additional
meaning.

But the "if true" qualification must be recognized. There are stiii
other possible explanations besides the existence of a sixth sense
involving psychoenergetics. Ernest Hilgard of Stanford University,
co-author of a standard college textbook on psychology, has spent
many years studying hypnosis and its potential medical applications
and has become aware of how suggestible the human mind can be.
His experiences have caused him to believe that all sorts of unusual
"psychic" experiences, including the beneficial effects of faith healing
or acupuncture, might be a result of suggestion.

Told how a visiting U.S. scientist had been able to do PK with the
help of a Soviet volunteer, Hilgard said, "I'll bet he’s hypnotizable. You

82

don’t have to go through any formal procedure if someone is highly
hypnotizable." And if suggestibility is not involved, sleight-of-hand
or mechanical assistance (magnets, etc.) can be, Hilgard stated.

Are honest people deluding themselves, or being deluded? The
experts disagree. But there seems to be a move toward increased
acceptance of some psychic phenomena. Robert A. McConnell, of the
University of Pittsburgh, who was the first president of the Para-
psychological Association, says that there are now so many experimen-
tal reports on extrasensory perception they have "erode [d] disbelief
in ESP until most psychologists are no longer willing publicly to deny
the evidence for the phenomenon." Still, there is no "widely encom-
passing theory. . . . [ESP] is a fact without an overall theory. One
suspects that it will someday cause a revolution in both psychology
and physics.”

Until that "someday" arrives, some v/ords of Bertrand Russell’s
may serve as our guide. In his Skeptical Essays he wrote;

The opinion of experts, when it is unanimous, must be accepted by non-experts
as more likely to be right than the opposite opinion. . . . (However] when they
are not agreed, no opinion can be regarded as certain by a non-expert.

One of the biggest benefits of the psychic boom may be that it will
stimulate enough serious scientific interest to get some dependable
answers about which phenomena are real, and which are not. and
thus allow more of the experts to begin to agree.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING:

Gardner, Martin, Fads and Fallacies in the Name ol Science, ch. 1, 9,
and 25-26, pp. 3-15, 101-115, and 299-324 (Dover Publications, 1957).

Jahoda, Gustav. The Psychology of Superstition (Penguin Books,
1970).

Luce, Gay, and Peper, Erik, "Mind over Body, Mind over Mind,” The
New York Times Magazine (Sept. 12, 1971, pp. 34-35, 132-139),

McConnell, R. A., ESP Curriculum Guide (Simon and Schuster, 1971).

Murphy, Gardner, Challenge of Psychical Research: A Primer of
Parapsychology (Harper and Brothers, 1961; Harper Colophon Books,
1970).

Psychic, bimonthly magazine, any issue (San Francisco).

Rhine, J. B., New World of the Mind (William Sloane Associates,
1953; Apollo Editions, 1962).

Tart, Charles T., Altered States of Consciousness: A Book of Read-
ings (John Wiley and Sons, 1969; Doubleday-Anchor, 1972).

Wilson. Colin, The Occult: A History {Random House. 1971).

Theratron-80, a computerized radiation therapy treatment machine. Photo,
Dan Morrill, courtesy, Presbyterian-St. Luke's Hospital.

i

der Attack

ncer yii

Ronald

Wi„ „u,. b. ,he ,=s. =ene.«.n .o

A, sd,nc= e,„ba,ks “"f and ...a.ins
the cause of this dread disease,
it become increasingly refined.

riia;pases. It will kill one out of
Cancer is one of man's most re prolonged suffer-

every six Americans who die m in

ing. Although people became a ^jgg.

the last decade, their feeling o ear^^^^ ^ggearch. which had promised
nosis remained. The springs 0 frustrating stale-

to cure cancer in the 1950s. had seemedjojfj

mate settled over 'f “^.^g.grshadowed cancer researchers is

gloom and disappointment Scientists, at work for decades

rapidly giving way to a new e understanding the

on the cancer problem, are y any tissue

transformation of normal to ma ig . scientific circles that

Of the body. There is a Jg^gT^nguer it.

cancer is at last yielding to man pjaaaa the

Almost weekly researchers P ^^ant discoveries have been

cancer puzzle. Among the pg^iavior of mammalian cells,

.buses capable c. al.edap “ bc«ia"

evidence that viruses are linke ggn^ertible into normal cells,

possibility that cancer cells and cancer is vital: if such a

Confirmation of the link betwee ^g^eloped to prevent cancers,

link exists, then a vaccine ^'9 mclude cancers of the breast.

Malignancies associated w. h viruses

cervix, muscles, and blood O^^^'^ancer. they are finding that it is
As scientists unravel the Parsons may be born with the

intertwined with the secret « ' j^ga,_ ,ocked up in their genes,

seeds of their eventual canc malignancy may depend on

Whether these seeds produc ^.^^ich is corn-

time. environment, and ,f,g pasic constituents of ge-

posed of nucleic acid an ,Pis scheme,

netic molecules, seem gg

RONALD KOTULAK is science editor
of the Chicago Tribune and author of
a prizewinning series of articfes on
cancer.

Although no one can predict just when cancer cures may be achieved,
experts are confident that if enough money is available for the needed
research the cures will be forthcoming. "Given the resources, the
funds, and the organizational capability, I am confident that we can
achieve control of this disease,” asserts H. Marvin Pollard, head of
gastroenterology at the University of Michigan and a spokesman for
the American Cancer Society. "A really massive effort to bring this
disease under control during this decade demands that not one single
possibility be neglected."

Encouraged by the new scientific findings, the United States is pre-
paring to mount an all-out effort to win the cancer battle. The president
and Congress have expressed their eagerness to spend whatever is
required. On December 23, 1971, Pres. Richard M. Nixon signed into
law the National Cancer Act, which was to provide more than $500
million annually for the next three years to support cancer research.
The investment in research could even reach $1 billion a year by 1976,
rivaling the budget of the U.S. space program during the early days of
the effort to land men on the moon. Justifying this kind of large-scale
spending, a national panel of 26 eminent scientists and laymen,
authorized by the U.S. Senate to review the cancer field, reported that
advances in the fundamental understanding of cancer in the past
decade have opened up far more promising areas for major advances
in cancer prevention and treatment than have ever before existed. The
panel concluded that the conquest of cancer is a realistic goal.

The changing picture of cancer

Although cancer ranks second, after heart disease, in the number of
victims it kills, persons fear it more than they do any other affliction,
and for several reasons. It appears to rise stealthily from one’s own
body, frequently hidden until it becomes so widespread that treatment
is futile. It causes an ugly death, robbing the patient of dignity. During
the course of the illness, a family’s financial reserves may be consumed
to pay for what is often treatment that does little good. Not only friends
and relatives, but sometimes even doctors and nurses, will avoid can-
cer patients out of some dark fear of the disease. And although many
physicians advise a family not to tell a dying relative that he has cancer,
most know without being told.

Among men, the incidence of cancer is increasing. The National
Cancer Institute (NCI) has reported that among males the rate of cancer
rose from 280 to 304 per 1 00,000 between 1 947 and 1 969, and that more
cases of cancer of the lung, prostate, and colon were being diagnosed.
The cancer rate among females during this period dropped from 294
to 256 per 100,000, with decreases in the frequency of cancers of the
cervix, stomach, and rectum. The significant drop in cervical cancer,
especially, was assisted by mass programs for detection of this type
of cancer in its early, curable stage.

Evidence indicates that man is probably responsible for many can-
cers. He releases into the environment or chooses to expose himself to

86

13%

2 %

3 %

23 %

leukemia

and

lymphomas '
all other

all other i -

.= frarcinogens). including chemi-
nany known cancer-causing ^9"" ^.an^ple, is blamed for

:als and radiation. Cigarette 9 ^ 3 ^,,-,„ogen_N-nitro-

50,000 lung cancer deaths ann y- tobacco smoke. A chemi-

sodimethylamine-was by the U.S. food and

cal culprit recently identifie , is used to correct

Drug Administration is ^ and is widely used to fatten

estrogen deficiency disorder pregnant women should not

e., Sdedp. The Ft>A «.r .ema.e

be given the compound Another source of carcinogens

somed., develop eaneer copld be

is polluted air. Some authorities

Certain cancers occur more frequently
among one sex than they do among
the other. In men. cancers most oltcn
involve the skin or the lungs V/omen
are lar less prone to these two forms
but are highly susceptible to cancers
of the breast and uterus

reduced by 20% if present levels of pollution in city atmospheres were
cut in half. One of the more potent carcinogens is benzo(a)pyrene, a
component of automotive and industrial soot.

But if man can cause cancers, he should also be able to prevent them
by identifying and eliminating their causative agents. Exactly hov/ car-
cinogens react in the body to produce cancers is not, as yet, known.

Almost everyone has been affected in some way by cancer. A relative
or friend may have died of it. And one of every four living Americans v/ill
be stricken personally by cancer during his lifetime. The toll in 1 971 was
339,000 cancer deaths, more than the number of U.S. troops killed in
World War II. But there is some good news. The cure rate is steadily
climbing. In 1930 one out of five cancer victims was cured; by 1972 the
rate had risen to one in three. Many cancer experts maintain that the
rate of cures could easily be boosted to one in every two cancer victims
if every patient received the benefit of available early diagnosis and
treatment with the best therapies now available.

But there still are needless deaths from cancer. James F. Holland, a
past president of the American Association for Cancer Research, claims
that doctors not specially trained to treat cancer or not interested in
the disease will not ensure the best available care for their patients. He
urges that any patient who has or suspects that he has cancer consult
two or more physicians, including a cancer expert.

Another reason for needless deaths is the erroneous notion that all
cancer is incurable. As a result, some patients delay seeing a doctor
or refuse surgery or other treatment that might otherwise have saved
their lives. This pessimism is being dispelled, however, by the startling
advances against cancers that just a few years ago v/ere considered
incurable.

Hodgkins disease, a cancer of the infection-fighting lymph nodes, is
one example. New radiation and surgical methods, along with newly
developed chemotherapies, which use combinations of anticancer
drugs, have boosted the five-year survival rate to 90% of the patients
with early or localized advanced stages of the disease. Investigators
at Stanford University are hopeful that most patients with even ad-
vanced Hodgkin's disease may soon look forv/ard to an extension of
life. The most vicious cancer of children— acute lymphocytic leukemia
—has also begun to yield its deadly hold. With proper treatment (so-
called total therapy), 60% of the children with acute leukemia admitted
to one medical center have survived at least three years free of signs of
the disease. Total therapy consists of administering combinations of
anticancer drugs to destroy most of the diseased cells quickly and to
prevent the patient from developing resistance to any one drug, and
using radiation therapy to remove the remaining cells the drugs do
not reach. Another type of cancer yielding to treatment is that of the
larynx (voice box). A 35-year study at the University of Chicago showed
that 95°/oof the localized, small cases of this cancer are curable through
radiation, surgery, or both.

The three main therapies being used against cancer are surgery.

88

/*r«tment With growth-inhibiting chemi-
radiation, and chemotherapy { anticancer drugs and

cals). Although therapists 3 reduce the need forsur-

improved immunotherapeutic choice in all but a few types of

gery, surgery remains the trea me Surgery is most effective

cancer and has scored impressi ^3,3 had

w/hen it is accomplished ear y ,he body and

a chance to spread cancerous c malignant

establish new malignancies, rra preventing cells from re-

cells. New drugs assist radia ion ^ ^gncers, these therapeutic
pairing the radiation damage. that of

Lhniques have prodacad sp.aad. 85% with

patients with operable tumors disease. This holds true also

uterine cancer will escape death uo p^,j^3,3 ^„h can-
tor 75% of patients with ovarian can continually improv-

cers of the colon, rectum, ' jpg outlook is even brighter,

ing diagnostic and 3° ^bat neither surgery nor radiation

Anticancer drugs can accompl.sb wh ^mi-

can do effectively-figtit of development and testing than

cancer compounds in ^ar-ous stao® 3 ,3,, years drugs

ever before. Some rese^ 3 ,,at penicillin does to

will be developed that

bacterial infections. antibiotic, bleomycin, which has had

One of the newest drugs resistant forms of cancer,

early success in treating so

New devices improve the physician s
ability to detect and treat cancers.

The steel’domed machine lleft)
contains a radio-cobalt source that
irradiates the cancerous white cells
in a leukemia patient's blood outside
his body. His normal tissue is thus
protected from radiation damage. The
-gamma camera" (right) searches lor
a brain tumor in three minutes. Faint
Hashes ol light emitted by an isotope
administered to the patient are
amplilied. relayed by a computer, and
recorded as a series ol dots that
indicate a tumor against a dark
background ol normal tissue.

A technique that may provide a simple
means of detecting breast cancer
IS liquid crystal thermography.
Cholesterol ester crystals applied
to a patient's breasts produce
patterns of iridescent colors that
rellect temperature variations in the
skin— reddish and green colors for
cool areas, blue for warm. The blue
area in what should have been a cool
region of the right breast indicates
a malignancy in the woman above.

has produced improvement in patients in the terminal stage of Hodg-
kin’s disease, and has been called the best drug so far for some highly
resistant solid tumors, such as squamous cell carcinoma. Initial tests
with patients suffering from advanced lymphosarcoma, for which there
has been little effective treatment, reveal that a new three-drug regimen
—cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone— has produced a
survival rate for at least two years of 73%. Animal tests have uncovered
a highly promising class of drugs that contain platinum. These drugs
may have action against more types of cancer than any other yet
developed — if experience with animals proves out in medical trials.

Unraveling the malignant process

As therapists continue to make significant strides in the treatment of
cancers, researchers are coming closer to an understanding of the
malignant process, on which further cures can be based. A picture of
what cancer is and how it may be caused is emerging.

Cancer appears to start in a single cell, which begins to function
much like embryonic cells do after conception. Each organism begins
life as one fertilized cell. The cell divides in two; the two divide into
four; and so on. All of these cells carry all the information necessary
to reproduce the complete organism, and all of this information is
being used. The cells divide very rapidly, just as cancer cells do. As the
embryo begins to take shape, however, some form of cellular communi-
cation takes place and chemical substances known as repressors are
called into action. The repressors attach to different sections of the
genes in the chromosomes of the forming cells so that only the in-
formation the cell needs to perform the particular role it is to have in
the body, whether as tissue, muscle, nerve, or bone, is allowed to send
out instructions. Once the complete organism is formed, the rate of
cell division slows appreciably until it is reduced to a minimum level
required for replacing dead or damaged cells.

A number of agents, however, can interfere with this orderly process

90

Coyrte?Y, ^*erT>orl

al Sloon-Kettefing Concef Center

of these carcinogens fall into three cate-
lreZl ° me SCo" pmenea,

culture can be used in tests of s'JSpect \ probably chemi-

Not too long ago it was thought t e ra sudden. inherit-

cals also, now propose that these

able change m a cell s gene . ym hidden genetic

carcinogens dividing rapidly. The cancer

information may instruct ce 9

cells reproduce finally destroying their host,

reference to the health of th y. g^ggested that can-

This change in concept was impo session, rather than being

cer consisted merely of a fault m ge^^ reversible if suitable

the product of gene a professor of biophysics

controls could be restored. Center, established that the re-
al the University of one line of cancerous

pressor concept is well foun ^ condition-

animal cells could be morally occurring body chemicals.

within an hour-by the use ^ (g^ienosine mono-
testosterone, a rnale sex ^ hormones to effect changes in

phosphate), a chemical that perm

cellular activity. r cells is possible," said

"For the first time the rever who v/as awarded a Nobel

OhaMes Hufflina of me „ Lmooes ,o o.noe, aod lla

Prize in 1966 for his discovers 9 ,3r cancer

con,, Of. -If ,hoy ‘ gins o.lievas ,n„ hormonal

would be much more development of a cancer. Studies

imbalances play a major role 1 London support his claim;

at the imperial Cancer Research jhe onset

records from more than gagged by abnormally low levels o

of breast cancer appears o jjggholanolone.

two hormones, androsterone and e ^ manufactures

When a normal cell is transfo recognizes as foreign. It is now

new antigens, proteins that the Y g„,.,ggn. ,, this is

believed that each type of chemical markers could be used

true, then methods of detecting thes^e^^^^^^ ^^^3 ggg„

to make early diagnoses of .,^g ,etal development, when

found to resemble antigens pre e 3,3 ,,,, generally

embryonic tissue is growing ^®P cancer cells may be seen

present in adult cells. Their r ^P .gggjation of a life process

L further evidence that cancer may be

tdat has gone awiv^ 33.,3,c3ity to antigens, and the same immuno-

The body has a natural

A computer that equates each letter
of the alphabet with a radiation
level recorded uptake of the isotope
fluorine-18 by the skeleton of this
patient. Doctors reading the scan
found two areas where late letters
indicated higher than normal uptake,
evidence of a spreading bone cancer.

logical defense system that helps combat colds and other infections
becomes aware of and attacks cancer cells that possess these abnor-
mal proteins. Primarily, the cancer antigens trigger the production of
antibodies, the specialized chemicals designed to neutralize antigens.
It is possible that the transformation of normal cells into malignant
ones is a common event and that the cancers that develop, called silent
cancers, are destroyed by antibodies as soon as they appear. In three
out of four persons, the immune response is so good that cancer never
has a chance to develop. But the fourth person is in danger. His defense
system may be defective because of disease, age, loss of the ability to
recognize the antigens, or some other mishap that prevents it from
searching out and killing the small pockets of cancer cells.

Failure of the immune system allows the cancer to grow rapidly to
about the size of a pinhead, when it stops temporarily. This is the maxi-
mum size a cancer can attain by diverting nutrients from neighboring
cells; to grow further it must elicit cooperation of the neighboring small
blood vessels. The tiny tumor secretes a compound, called tumor
angiogenesis factor (TAF), that stimulates a fantastic growth of blood
vessels directly into the tumor, which previously had none. With this
new source of food, the cancer begins growing again.

Viruses, enzymes, and cancer

New areas of research into the cause and progress of cancer are taking
shape. One of the most important developments stimulating these
efforts was reported in 1970 by a University of Wisconsin virologist,
Howard M. Temin. He claimed to have discovered that some viruses
have the ability to make genetic material that can be incorporated into
the chromosomes of a host cell, bringing it new hereditable informa-
tion. Some investigators think that this may be the missing link in the
cancer puzzle, the means by which the cell acquires the deadly instruc-
tion that orders it to reproduce in a cancerous fashion.

Currently three major theories try to explain the cancer-inducing
ability of viruses. One holds that viruses from a source outside the vic-
tim infect a cell and construct a gene that eventually produces cancer.
This would support the straightforward notion that perhaps most
cancers are caused by viruses. The second theory, one that is gaining
in popularity, suggests that everyone is born with the genetic message
of a cancer virus already incorporated within his chromosomes.
Robert J. Huebner of NCI proposes that such viral genetic material was
probably incorporated as a result of a viral infection in man's early
ancestors and has been passed down through succeeding generations.
In certain carriers an environmental shock, such as exposure to chemi-
cals, radiation, another virus, or hormonal imbalance, turns on the
virus information and a cancer begins to develop. The third theory,
postulated by Temin, suggests that normal human chromosomes con-
tain specific sections that can make virus-like particles capable of
infecting other cells. Once inside a fresh cell they can alter the genes
so that cancer results.

92

Adopted from ■■RNA-DiteCed DNA Synthes, s- by Ho..o,c,

Tem.n Copyright \ 1972 by Sc.ent.f.c Amer.co,

n, Inc All rights reserved

DNA

^iOOOOOOOOOi

> nrr

era y

Nl/

RNA

>oor

DNA

x>oooooooocx

X50COOC00005

>ooc

y<.> 00000 <> 000 i

RNA

rsrf nrimanlv of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
Genes are composed y chemical language of life,

which constitutes the mas er c ^ proteins, which are the

The DNA carries the information for making

materials that build cells and reactions. When a

the form of enzymes, speed up governing that protein pro-

protein is needed, the ribonucleic acid (RNA).

duces a working copy of i making the protein to sub-

me RNA then carries the mstreetions o msKing

cellular particles called ribosomes, which assem
the protein according to the RNA enzyme (now called

,970 Tcmln established the “ “Jnp.is, ,hat can

either '’“J™ DNA-ralher than protein, eensticists

cause an RNA blueprint to make D

were amazed! They had mam ^ ^.g^cer research because

vice versa. Temin’s discovery is ^nly rna. It explains how

most viruses known to cause can cancerous change in the

RNA tumor viruses might caus
cells they infect.

Cancer detection, P''®''®"'J°"/,g"e'lse transcriptase may be the key
Mounting evidence suggests .„_._pers have associated it with
to controlling some cancers. ® breast cancer. The

cancers, including tool to indicate the presence of a

enzyme may serve as ^ to investigate drugs to find ones
cancer. Meanwhile, workers goritrol cancer,

that will block the action o consist of derivatives of the anti-

Two promising classes of compounds con

biotics rifampicin and streptovar.c.n^^^ embryonic tissue

Reverse transcriptase has ^ ^t^^t induces cancer is also vital

This may mean that the possibility fits nicely into both t e

to the growth of fetal cel • appears necessary for

Temin and Huebner theories; an grow-
ths rapid growth of fetal ^eUs 'S a ‘ r.g„_ one with its

ing cancer cells. The speculat.onjs tha^^^ 3,3,3.

genetic controls „3 ,vork has provided the most con-

A remarkable piece of d breast cance .

vincing evidence yet that ^ a, est tube with viruses known to

Reverse transcriptase, when rnolecules. Since this artificial y

cause animal cancers, produces u

The recent discovery of the reverse
transcription process suggested that
the cause of cancer may lie in one s
own genes. The protovirus hypothesis
proposed by Howard M. Temin suggests
that sections of DNA in normal cells
may be models lor synthesizing RNA
that has the ability to synthesize
DNA. which becomes integrated into
cellular DNA. Repetition of this
process may produce regions of DNA
that are activated to encourage cell
differentiation during embryonic
development, or to stimulate cancerous
cell growth later in life.

GLOSSARY OF CANCER TERMS

TUMOR (or NEOPLASM): Any new, excessive growth arising
without obvious cause and serving no physiological function. Such
growths can be either benign or malignant.

BENIGN TUMOR: Any noncancerous tumor; that is, one that does
not spread rapidly from its site of origin.

MALIGNANCY: The tendency to cause death. Tissues are deemed
malignant when, under microscopic examination, they are found
to display any of the abnormalities characteristic of cancer.

CANCER: The common name for any of the more than 100 distinct
diseases characterized by tissue cells that grow more rapidly than
normal, assume abnormal shape or size, and cease functioning in
a normal manner (neoplasia), and by a tendency to spread from
one part of the body to another (metastasis). Cancers are generally
classified either as carcinomas or sarcomas according to their
site of origin; prefixes added to these designations indicate the
precise tissue of origin.

CARCINOMA: Any cancer originating in the epithelial tissue, which
tines most hollow organs. A uterine adenocarcinoma, for example,
is a cancer involving ducts or glands of tissue of the uterus.

SARCOMA: Any cancer originating in the structural frame of the
body (nonepithelial tissue), including muscle, fat, connective tissue,
bone, cartilage, and tendons.

METASTASIS: The transmission of cancerous cells that have broken
off from the original lesion to another site through the blood,
lymph, or membranous surfaces.

LESION: Any injury, abnormal change, wound, or diseased area in
an organ or tissue. In cancer, the primary lesion is the one in which
the cancer originated; a secondary lesion is one established
through metastasis.

CARCINOGEN: Any substance capable of causing a malignant
tumor. In general, there are three types of carcinogens: chemical,
radiation, and viruses.

C-TYPE VIRUS: A virus with a central core of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
and a double limiting membrane secreted through a budding
process from the surface of infested cells and capable of altering
the genetic character of the host cell; the type of virus most
commonly suspected of being a human carcinogen.

REMISSION: A period of return to better health in any chronic
disease. In cancer this must be associated v/ith a persistent
reduction in size of measurable metastatic tumors and cessation
of tumor grov/th.

created genetic material was made from reduced cancer

I, Shouw hook «p Witt, „ » ol Iho cases tested

cells, hot notwlth ™ ce^e«s contained jenetic

I, did, revealing that the homan^h^^^ ol a cancer-caoslng

information identical to Ih g

virus. . . j^g virus that causes breast

It is of considerable importan ,he ^nk of women

cancer in mice is similar to y^gwise. reverse transcriptase

with familial histories of rea -imal breast cancers. This asso-

is similar in both human and oth prgvention of breast cancer by
elation seems more than coinci . jg no longer a mere

,„monlza.ion, or its control been used to ptodoces.se-

hope, indeed, the mouse esneer subsequently

Cine that protects mice from brea

exposed to the virus. becomes more promising daily.

The search for a human cancer ^^^2 researchers

Within a short period of time m viruses in cancer

from three separate '^boratories rep findings-by

patients that might be Hospital of Los Angeles: by

Robert M. McAllister of the i,y. Washington, D.C.: and

Sarah Stewart at Georgetown Anderson

by Elizabeth S. Priori and L®®" Tex.-await confirmation by

Hospital and Tumor suspected viruses are what scientists

olho, woikom. Ail .hicc c - ,„„,i„s uouid be iho prod-
call C-type viruses. n,an's ancestors,

uct ol cancer genes inherited g.

Electron micrographs detect the close
resemblance ol the virus particle
(top) proved to cause breast cancer
in mice to another (bottom) otten
tound in the milk ol women with
known high genetic risk ol breast
cancer. Both particles have rounded
heads ol similar diameter, long
irregular tails, and surlace projections
that diner Irom any noted on other
viruses. The human particle passed
several other tests indicating it may
be a viral cause ol human cancer.

Another important bit of evidence to strengthen the virus-enzyme-
cancer concept was the discovery by three other groups that two
chemicals, called BUDR and 5-IUDR for short, can induce C-type
viruses to appear in what are otherwise normal cells that previously
had no viruses in them. It is believed that these chemicals, like an
environmental shock, may jolt the cancer genes into action, again
supporting the Huebner theory. The NCI is so confident that the viral
cause of cancer will be substantiated that it has awarded a $1.8 million
contract to Merck Sharp & Dohme Research Laboratories to develop
vaccines against the viruses (including the C-type) known to cause
tumors in animals.

The feeling of excitement that continues to mount in the fields of
virology and molecular biology, is also being felt in immunology. Evi-
dence that cancer flares up as a result of a breakdown in a person’s
immunological defense system has accumulated. Persons with im-
mune-deficient diseases, for example, exhibit higher than normal rates
of cancer, and malignancies increase in older persons, as the efficiency
of the immune system diminishes. Perhaps the most incriminating
information comes from the field of organ transplantation. In order to
suppress the body’s rejection mechanism— which would recognize a
transplant as foreign matter— graft recipients are given drugs that
depress their immune system. But an alarming trend has occurred: the
incidence of cancers among these patients is unusually high. The
drugs that successfully prevented rejection of the transplant apparently
also impaired the patient’s immune response against silent cancers.

A promising approach to helping the body fight cancers involves the
use of a vaccine effective against tuberculosis, BCG, which seems to
have the added benefit of generally strengthening the body’s immune
response. A special vaccine composed of BCG and cells from cancer
patients has kept six leukemia patients alive for more than five years.
These patients had a deadly form of leukemia that usually kills its
victims within three years. These remarkable results with BCG are
believed to be the first demonstration in man that an agent that stimu-
lates cellular immunity also protects against cancer. BCG was also
administered to 22 patients given up as hopeless because of malignant
melanoma, a usually fatal skin cancer. Four patients underwent com-
plete regression and eight others showed some stabilization of the
disease. Promising support for the cancer-controlling properties of
BCG came from the Canadian province of Quebec, where, in one town,
when all the children were immunized against tuberculosis the ex-
pected incidence of acute leukemia fell off by 60%.

A second immunity-strengthening approach being employed against
cancer involves the use of a compound called Poly l:C to stimulate the
production of interferon, a natural cellular defense system against
viruses. Mice given Poly l:C and then subjected to a known cancer-
causing virus do not develop cancer. Animals not protected with the
compound, however, do contract the disease. Preliminary studies
indicate the compound may also be beneficial against human cancers.
96

0 „«f .he .nain goals of canca, -esearch ,s me
lo rteleot cancers early, when they are mosi likely to be curable. A

,0, cancer oi ihe ”"::.::ore:rar^^^^^^^
:r.;e:rbr::b, bcween me "s

It e antigen w.H do for colon cancer

tde pap smear .as done ,n dramatlcany reducing

cervical cancer in women. powerless against

Why a person’s natural immu - team, Karl

cancer may have been Washington. They found

and Ingegerd Hellstrom of th substances

that patients with rampaging cance antigens on the

called blocking antibodies, recognize and attack

cancer cells so that the defense system cou d no 9
them, in effect, the immune " h for ca^

the cancer. Theirfindingopensup^a^newapp^^^^^^^^^

for if a way could be found bu, unaware of the

patient’s own immune respons = Hellstroms have

cancer-may be able to destroy ^ ^be Uni-

had successful results ^ encouraging results with a

versily of Minnesota recently P

similar technique in human cancers is accumulating

Because evidence of the na ur ^gy become outmoded

rapidly, present treatments for m ^g ^ and meth-

in a few years. Also, if cancers vessels to the tumors-a

ods developed to block the gro ‘ cancers may be arrested

prospect currently being though much remains to be

and never grow bigger than pm .^gtegy formulated in the United
done in cancer research, the jbat will not only speed man’s

States may very well produce m ^bout the secrets

eventual victory over cancer but also

°'r'- ENCVCLOP/EDIA BBITANNICA (.97211 CANCEBI CANCEB
bIsLbc^Smitv and immunization.

Although no virus was a proved cause
of human cancer, one study in which
human sarcoma cells were injected
into cat letuses produced a C-type
virus unlike any known in animals.
Photomicrographs (opposite page, top
to bottom) show human cancer cells
terming a tumor (arrow) in a kitten s
brain tissue, a kitten brain tumor
made up ol human cells. C-type virus
particles (dark spots) near a human
sarcoma cell m a kitten brain tumor,
the virus budding oil a sarcoma cell
in a culture, and the isolated virus
grown lor 24 hours in a culture

DR additional READING: (February 1972).

-BCG Vbcblnb," AmbbC." ffj; j„„. ,Fbb. 7. .9721,
"Chemical Control of Cancer. __ Britannica Yearbook

Crick, F, H. C,. "The "lie,, B,i.abbl«. .998),

(Knopf. 1972).

97

Mechanical
rvants for Mankind

by John McCarthy

Robols-mechanical beings that can take over the dull and
burdensome chores of life-have long been dreamed of by man. Hovr
soon, if ever, will this dream become reality?

A robot is an artificial intelligent being usually considered to have
human form. The idea of making a robot by magic is ancient, and the
idea of making one by science originated in Mary Shelley's Franken-
stein, or the Modern Prometheus in 1818. The word "robot,” from the
Czech word for work, was introduced in a play R.U.R. by Karel Capek
in 1920.

Mechanisms that imitate some of the functions of humans or animals
have been constructed for several hundred years, but a real robot
must have Uvo properties that were not really feasible until the stored
program digital computer was developed in the late 1940s. These
are sensory input from the outside world so that the machine s actions
will take the world into account, and an internal model of the outside
world, the machine's goals, and the laws that determine the effects
of the actions the machine may undertake. The pre-computer mecha-
nisms, while sometimes very elaborate, essentially went through fixed,
built-in sequences of actions.

Formulating the problem

The first modern discussion of the possibilities of intelligent machines
was by the British mathematician Alan Turing in 1950. Turing was well
fitted for this because in 1936 he had introduced the concept of a uni
versal computational machine and had also taken part in the design of
early computers. (A universal computational machine can do any com
putation that can be done by any machine, because it can use a
description of the other machine in order to imitate it. All present com-
puters are universal.)

98

JOHN McCarthy is a professor
of computer science at Stanford
University and director of the
Stanford Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory.

Turing's article accomplished three things: (1) It set forth as a suffi-
cient criterion for intelligence the ability to imitate a human over a
teletype line. This clarified arguments with people who believed that a
machine could not be intelligent because it does what it is told. (2) It
established that the difficult problem is not the construction of the
robot or the computer but the programming of it. It is possible to use
any stored program digital computer, but the problem is to make
up the rules that determine how it will act in any situation. These rules
have to be understood very precisely in order to express them as a
computer program. (3) It proposed the problems of making programs
for playing chess and proving mathematical theorems as major goals
for research in artificial intelligence, giving reasons why these are
worthwhile problems and some ideas for getting started.

Since Turing's time, artificial intelligence has slowly developed into
an important scientific field with numerous branches and with numer-
ous ideas of the fundamental problems. At present, there are still no
really intelligent robots. In fact, as described below, there are funda-
mental scientific problems to be solved and maybe even formulated.

Heuristics

Artificial intelligence may be divided into three sub-topics: heuristics,
representation theory, and robotics. Heuristics is concerned with the
search for a solution to a problem among a collection of alternatives.
Representation theory is concerned with the structure of the informa-
tion a computer program or a person may have about the world, the
facts that allow it to determine the effects of the actions it may take,
and the methods available for getting more information. Robotics is
concerned with perception and action in the physical world.

The most developed of fhese subjects is heuristics. Most of the
insight gained in this area has come from comparing the performance
of computer programs in playing games and proving mathematical
theorems with human performance. The most studied game has been
chess. The best result in comparison with human play was achieved in
the 1 960s by a program written by Richard Greenblatt of Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), His program played class C chess at that
time. In fact, it won its class C rating by winning the class D trophy in a
regular chess tournament in Boston.

This performance is quite modest considering that these programs
are capable of examining several hundred positions per second on
present-day computers. However, even these results were achieved
with a great deal of effort, and the earlier programs were much worse.
Part of the progress involved the incorporation of specific knowledge
about chess, but the major defects in early programs can better be
described as their lack of aspects of general human intelligence. More-
over, the weaknesses of present programs seem to come from lack of
general intelligence rather than lack of chess knowledge. Programs
written under the direction of chess grandmasters have not done as
well as those written by people interested in heuristic programming.

too

Rolph Crone, LIFE

\ ‘

1^=-“ , , ,hese intellectual mechanisms are.

In order to see what a e exploring the

:onsider how chess programs ^ position the machine has a
so-called move tree of the game. as the branches of a tree,

number of moves which can be re opponent has a number of

Each move leads to a position m the tree, and so on. Ul-

moves that give another leve o the game is over,

timately the branching stops a P ^ that would play perfect

U would be easy to write a compu P ^P^ program

chess by examining all PO^'t ons

would be smaller and use less storag^ P^^3^33 the

The only problem is that it wou electron in the universe

full move tree is quite large. ’ ^P^j examine a position

visible to astronomers ^ pt to cross an electron, then the

in the instant of time that it ® P ir energy would not suffice

time remaining until the stars d.ss.pate^^

to determine the best first move ^ ^P^ ^^,^3 tree, and

Therefore, programs look on y on the rules that deter-

the program's level of play deP^s 3,3 do not consider

mine what positions -^^^^^^ ^^nevel. An effort is made to cons^

all possible moves, even at the mt al le ^^oh possib e

only moves that may generate moves that may contribute o

goal programs are written ‘^at 3,3 aUacking the opponent s

it. Goals included in ‘yP“=^' ^ ® 3 ood pawn structure, disrupting

king, defending one's own. getting

“Shakey." named tor its unsteady
movements and developed by the
Stantord Research Institute, has
motors, wheels, leelers. a television
-eye.- and a range tinder. These are
all connected by radio to a large
time-shared computer. Shakey can
explore a room, remember some
ol its contents, and trom that
information achieve some simple tasks.
For example, it can push a box

Courtesy. General Elecinc Reseorch
end DevelopmenT Center

A four-legged "walking machine"
mimics and amplifies the movements
of Its human operator The right
front leg of the machine
IS controlled by the operator's right
arm. the left front leg by his left
arm the right rear leg by his right
teg. and the left rear leg
by his left leg Designed
by the General Electric Co. as part
of a program to develop
man-amplification" machines
lor the military, this research
prototype has walked across level
ground, climbed obstacles, lifted
a small vehicle out of a mudhole.
and hoisted a 500-pound load
onto a truck with one loot.

the opponent's pawn structure, etc. In order to prevent the program
from going deeper and deeper, there are stop rules. In general, one
tries to stop the analysis at quiescent positions that can be evaluated
without further looking ahead. Besides this, it pays to set an initial
level of aspiration that changes as the analysis proceeds and to stop
the analysis of positions that clearly cannot lead to reaching this level.
It also is necessary to keep a level of aspiration forthe opponent based
on the alternatives that have already been examined for him.

When a computer chess program makes a bad move in a position, it
can be required to print out the tree of moves that it examined in
reaching its decision. It usually turns out that the trouble comes from
the program not having examined an important move, either its own or
its opponent's. This is much more common than having examined the
right moves but incorrectly evaluating a quiescent position. On the
other hand, the computer will usually have spent much time examining
moves that strike the human player as not worth looking at.

When the program has failed to look at a line of play that a human
would look at, this is usually readily fixed by finding a new principle for
looking at moves. Of course, this principle may make the computer
program look at moves a human would ignore. This is all right provided
it does not waste too much time. Unfortunately, this often happens,
and it is much more difficult to devise principles that v/ill allow a pro-
gram to ignore moves safely.

There are several aspects of human game playing that no one has
been able to make computers accomplish satisfactorily. First, a human
v/ill often break a position down into several sub-positions, analyze
them separately, and then combine the analyses. There is still not any
good way of programming a computer to identify such sub-positions.
Second, a move often has properties that apply to a whole class of posi-
tions; thus, an opponent's move may capture one's queen in all the
positions resulting from moves that do not move the threatened queen.
Third, there is not yet a system for recognizing that an aspect of a posi-
tion is one for which there is a general rule; thus, no present chess
program can be instructed about smother mates in any general way,
let alone develop the concept from its experience.

In a few board games, computer programs play better than the best
humans; these are games in which the intellectual mechanisms we
knov/ how to program, such as look-ahead and evaluation, are ade-
quate for successful play. Such a game is Kalah, an American com-
mercial version of a game played in Africa and Asia.

The other area to which heuristic programming has been extensively
applied is proving mathematical theorems. The results are similar
to the game-playing results but not as good. Certain intellectual mech-
anisms have been identified and programmed. In domains of mathe-
matics where these mechanisms are adequate, the programs do rather
well. Unfortunately, the scope of these domains is still very narrow
compared to mathematics as a whole.

continued on page 10~

102

Robots in science fiction

Since most people have gotten then hrst

:rrst 'ira^roLroire:::; wants . te..

Sometimes, he is simply writing a conquer the world on their

often help provide the conflict by ryi g -

own behalf or on behalf of common theme is the robot

I robots and bad revolt or suffer helplessly

as the oppressed class or rac ^ ^ arialogous to equal

and pathetically or be "berate ^^^y

races living in harmony, n political attributes as will

human motivational, emotional. ^

suit the author’s purpose. Another he-

Midas, in which an apparent goo ' pjg ,s Isaac Asimov's three
one of the popular science -;2‘^;J:eet itself, and carry

laws of robotics-a robot q, Asimov's plots hinge on

out its orders in that order of prio y^ particular cases,

complexities in the interpretation of these

leading to neurotic behavior of t e ^° p ,o describe important

Mos. science .ic.lcn .ails in ° Ta mpie, .n cs s.cries Asico.

aspects or consequences of robo its con-

ignores the possibility that a rob J . ,pe consequences

ceptlon of the world being ^to^dete^^^^

of a proposed action. S'^'lar un , worlds with only one

1 other writers. For example, ^J^perea^ there are likely to be
or two forms of artificial in e g difficult to depict an mtelli-

many. Writers have also concentrated on robots that

I gence greater than man s an

are equally as smart. mean that the science fiction ideas of

But these shortcomings do opportuni-

robots are worthless. We may get rom development

ties to be exploited and problem ,P3 3gjence fic-

of artificial intelligence seems likely

tionalin the following ways: period during which it will be

r., --- »•“' "■ "'™

T™:p*.“no. on-. -

hand, there P 3 ,ay take 500. ^^ 3.3 ap„„y ,0 have

It may take 5 years. m check long trains o! reason-

3. Present ideas are e fingertips, to cneu

large amounts of ' j^ple hypotheses.

ing. and even to generate p ^

The Unimate (opposite, top) performs
a great variety of heavy and delicate
industrial jobs, ranging from loading
machine tools to packing glass tubes.
Its hydraulic-powered reach can vary
from 3 V 2 to 7 V 2 feet, and it can carry
loads up to 75 pounds while moving
through an arc ol 220^ The machine
is "taught" by being led
through its desired movements once,
and its magnetic memory system
has a capacity ol 180 sequential
commands. In the bottom photograph.
Unimates are loading
automotive presses.

continued from page 102

The efforts to make game-playing and theorem-proving programs
have led to the identification of important intellectual mechanisms of
general significance, but the programs themselves are quite narrow in
their capability. Therefore, considerable effort has also gone into trying
to make programs of general intellectual capability.

Representation

One approach, which was tried in the late 1950s and early 1960s,
involved simulating evolution by having a machine or computer pro-
gram that gave answers to problems. The machine or program was
divided into parts, and each part had a certain probability of being
changed at each time. When a problem was solved correctly, the parts
that operated in the correct run were "rewarded" by having their
probability of change reduced, and when an incorrect answer was
given the active parts were "punished" analogously. Other schemes
kept the same parts but altered their probabilities of activation accord-
ing to their success. When applied to problems of pattern classification,
such as identifying the letter of the alphabet shown in a picture, these
schemes had some success, but none of them were capable of learn-
ing any generally intelligent behavior. The problem was that in the
schemes used for representing behavior, meaningful changes of be-
havior were not represented by small changes in the representation.

Another approach to general intelligence was the General Problem
Solver (GPS) of Allen Newell and Herbert Simon. This involved repre-
senting an arbitrary problem as one of transforming one expression
into another via intermediate expressions using certain allowed rules
of transformation. A number of problems were put into this form and
solved by the GPS, and the results were compared with the records of
sessions in which humans solved the problems. In the end, however,
the GPS was not general enough. In particular, the GPS could not
achieve the goal of representing the problem of improving itself.

A third approach involves the use of mathematical logic. In the
middle of the 19th century, the English mathematician George Boole
began the development of a formal language for expressing mathe-
matical ideas. This development was continued by such mathemati-
cians as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. When we say a language
is formal, we have three properties in mind: Effective rules are given
that determine which strings of letters and digits and special characters
are supposed to be sentences in the language; effective rules are given
that determine when a sentence is to be regarded as an immediate con-
sequence of several others: and, if the language is to refer to some-
thing outside itself, some rules have to be given in English that tell
what the objects of the language refer to. The concept of "effective
rule" used here by the mathematical logicians can be considered today
to be the same as "checkable by computer."

The use of logic in artificial intelligence is in principle quite straight-
forward. The idea is to express what human beings know about the
104

situations in logical form. It is
world in general and about p ^33 ^^^at is known about the

especially important to be a e future

effects of actions people may ta then

consequences of a present sta e ^ prescribed goal

the fact that a certain course 0 Suppose we have a

should follow from the aforern {o„ov/s from

logical system and a ^,3 3,hieved by a certain course of

these facts that a certain goa _,ven the facts, can find the course

action. We still need a P^^^ram P • 9 programs wi

of action and deduce that it wMI achieve all

have different from the facts.

goals whose achievability 3phts the artificial intelligence

Therefore, the use of logica representing the facts m a logi-

problem into two parts: the P^ ° ^..^em of finding out what to do.
cal system, and. given the J described in the previous sec-

The latter is a problem in ^ ,^ech in common with epis.e-

tion. The representation prob r. has^^^^^^ ,ge^

mology. which is Inhical logic, which is concerned with

It is also connected tei.n •"'« knowledge.

me .ornteldeecdption of concepts Wte a

(((

ilr lil.

.i*. '* ■: '

Robotics ^as been made toward making

Potting an mis »=«“'• "JXK^aOOP. and ei.net try to ccndcc'
a mechanical man prejudiced?

world or suffer oppression from the P

liM- •■* . ^

Consider first the hardware situation. Nowhere in 1972 was there
any mechanical man with two legs, two arms, two eyes, and a brain. It
was not certain that present-day mechanical engineering could pack-
age the necessary motors, joints, etc., in a frame light enough to be
moved by the motors. At any rate, no one had tried. There were, how-
ever, many separate parts in use. Specifically, artificial arms, television
cameras, microphones, and radio and TV connections to vehicles that
can roll around on the floor had been attached to computers. The
computers were large ones, weighing many tons, but suitable small
ones existed even though they were expensive and not as convenient to
use as a good laboratory time-shared computer.

However, the main bottleneck in making a robot was not the hard-
ware but the programming, and within programming the most im-
mediate bottleneck was programming vision. In 1972 computer vision
involved a television camera attached to the computer, allowing the
computer to "read" a frame from the camera into its memory. The
picture is represented by about 500 x 500 = 25,000 numbers, each
giving the brightness of a point in the picture. If color is wanted, three
frames can be taken, through red, green, and blue filters. That the pic-
ture is in the computer can be verified by printing it out again or dis-
playing it on a television monitor connected to the computer. In fact,
pictures can be improved by computer processing more flexibly than in
a darkroom. The processing is used to eliminate noise, improve con-
trast, and transform pictures taken from different directions to a com-
mon direction and scale so that the pictures can be compared to look
for changes.

None of these operations require the computer program to identif>'
and locate the objects in the picture, but suppose we want a computer
to physically build an object out of parts. In the simplest case, not re-
quiring vision, the parts come mounted and oriented precisely on a
belt. An artificial arm goes through a fixed sequence of predetermined
motions in order to pick up each part and place it. Fasteners such as
bolts and welding are also used, but also with precise motions. This
procedure was introduced in the late 1 960s by two U.S. firms, and there
are now several hundred such arms in use. In particular, the new Gen-
eral Motors plant for producing Vega cars at Lordslown, O., uses many
such manipulators, but even there they do only a small part of the work
of putting together a car.

Such "robots" ordinarily are not directly computer-controlled but
instead are operated by a tape or drum on which has been recorded
the desired motions by a human being who had put the robot through
the desired operation. The exact same motions (to the hundredth of an
inch if the machinery is that accurate) are repeated each time. The only
variability is in timing, since the machine can be instructed to wait
after completing one operation until if receives a signal to perform the
next one. These signals may be generated by switches, which detect
that a part is in place before allowing the operation to proceed.

The applications of this kind of robot are somewhat limited. They

106

Ralph Crane, LIFE AAogozi

■ r ■ ■

are so expensive that they ^^ed Xnace. Also, it is often

gerous, such as ,or the parts to be so precisely

expensive or impossible required operations can be re-
made and so precisely place applications for v/hich

pe,,ed exapdv. ^

this kind of first-level robot can o

probably be installed in the 1970s. computer-controlled arm v/ith a
The second-stage robot are simple and

television camera for an eye. ^ jo build a simple structure

have flat faces. The laboratory. Three examples

out of these objects. This work is 33 follows: At the

of what recently has been 3 computer-controlled arm

MIT Artificial Intelligence a. tbe Stanford University Artificial

copied a structure made of blocks. requiring that a tower

Intelligence Laboratory, a program

o„„ur Slocks with spoclllcd “'■>'* ““X s.mpK s.-oco.e oot o.
Central Research Laboratory, a pr orthographic (involving right

blocks working from a drawing 9 ' ^ 3, ,be desired structure.

S weretcorpksssd In .PP™kln..»IV

Obeying spoken commands
IS a lundion of the machine above,
which uses a manipulator arm.
a television "eye." and a large
computer to analyze what lies
before it VJhen the words
"Stack the small blocks at the upper
right" are spoken, the computer
determines what steps are required
It then transmits this information
to the arm. which turns itself
as necessary lo grasp each block
by the sides and lower it on top
of a pile The machine, however,
cannot cope with irregularly
shaped objects

Courtesy, Hitachi, Ltd.

Japan is producing robotiike
machines to use in iight and heavy
industry. One Japanese firm,
Hitachi, Ltd., has deveioped
the "visual robot," a modelwith two
television eyes to provide
binocular vision.

First the program found the edges of the objects in the scene by scan-
ning the array of brightnesses of the picture that it had read from the
television camera into the memory of the computer. When the program
found a sudden change in brightness, it scanned in a circle about the
point where the change occurred, looking for the dark-to-light transi-
tion. If it found this transition, the program took this point as the center
of a new circle and thus traced along the entire dark-to-light boundary.
In this way it found all the edges in the picture. (Actually edge finding is
more complicated than this, because not all edges are between regions
of different brightnesses: in some cases the edges themselves reflect
the light. Also there are shadows to be ignored if possible.)

After the edges were found, the program determined the three-
dimensional collection of objects that would give rise to this pattern
of edges. Some of the objects might be partly hidden behind others,
and the program had to make plausible assumptions about the hidden
parts. However, present programs cannot deal with curved objects in
any general way: either the objects must have all flat faces or each
curved object to be found must be programmed for explicitly. Once
the objects in the scene were found, the computer determined the
trajectories of arm motion that would move them to the desired places.
Generally the arm motion was done without visual feedback, largely
because the arms were more complicated objects than the existing
vision programs could handle.

Moving to the next higher level, one finds programs being developed
to use more visual information than just brightness discontinuities,
This work includes color-contrast edges and edges that occur when an
object is seen against a background. While these techniques will make
edge detection and region finding more versatile, they will not solve
the basic problem of representation of visual information. An object
with flat faces can be described by listing its faces, describing each
face by listing its edges, and describing each edge by giving its end-
points. But how is one to describe a human head? The description
must cover the subtleties of shape by which people can tell one human
from another, but clearly should not be so detailed as to describe each
hair. There are various ideas for dealing with this, mostly still too vague
to be described here, but they are all too limited in their potential
capability.

Although programming vision is perhaps the most immediate prob-
lem in robotics, even when this has been achieved we will still be far
from having an intelligent machine. Suppose we want a robot capable
of being a domestic servant. Then we need to program at least the
following capabilities;

1 . It must know the properties of physical objects: for example, to put eggs in
a paper bag it must know that eggs must be placed gently and that the paper bag
can change its shape as it is opened and things are put in it. It must also know
about doors and drawers and stairs.

2. It must know about people and v/hat they want and hov/ they change their
minds.

108

3. It must have some understanding of

4. It must know about how ‘®^j7side effects that might result from

5. It must be able to recognize any harmful sioe

its planned actions. whether to ask for help.

6. It must know when to give PP,®"^ from experience, at least

7. It must have at least a primitive Y j, ggain m

enough so that if it is shown how to do a task

similar circumstances.

T.e c„.,ca, w.

know Is Itsoll '"“"’I’'''' " , ns presoot stats ol oar understand-
out more basic ones. This refiec

ing of artificial intelligence.

109

Fusion

Power that is clean, inexpensive, and abundant— this long-sought
goal may be achieved if the great energy released by nuclear
fusion can be harnessed.

Since the explosion of the first hydrogen bomb in 1951— uncontrolled
nuclear fusion— scientists have sought ways to harness and control
this vast source of energy. Despite many difficulties, progress is being
made. Controlled nuclear fusion reactions of the heavy isotopes of
hydrogen promise to provide an economical and essentially inexhaust-
ible new source of electrical power. Large-scale experimental work on
controlled fusion is under way in the United States, the Soviet Union,
Europe, and Japan. The principal scientific problem is the long-time
confinement of the reacting fuel, which must be maintained at tempera-
tures of typically 100,000,000' -1,000,000, 000- C. Estimates based on
recent experimental progress indicate that a demonstration of scien-
tific feasibility of controlled fusion may be achieved toward the end of
the 1970s: the first commercial application of fusion pov;er is generally
predicted for the late 1990s or for the following decade.

Fusion power has inherent economic and environmental advantages
that make it the preferred solution to the world's long-range energy
requirements. The basic fuel, deuterium, is inexpensive and abundant.
Unlike nuclear fission power, fusion does not produce radioactive
wastes except for activated structural materials of the reactor, and
there is no possibility of a runaway fusion reaction. The thermal effi-
ciency of the first fusion reactor designs is comparable to that of con-
ventional power plants: but there is a prospect of future reactor designs
with very low production of waste heat. The cost of fusion power and
the required capital investment are estimated to be competitive with
the corresponding figures for present-day conventional power.

'JU) P. FURTH is a professor of
.cnysical sciences and co-head
:r e Experimental Division of the
Physics Laboratory at Princeton
University.

Nuclei of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium
and tritium) consist of a proton plus as
many as two neutrons The positively
charged nuclei repel each other
(opposite, top and center),
but may fuse on sufficiently close
approach (bottom).

I

1

I

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S

1

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i

i

!

i

i

i

t

i

1

i

i

Requirements for fusion power production

In order to understand the fusion problem, it is helpful to recall some
basic features of the atom. The most common form of the hydrogen
atom consists of a single electron revolving around a much heavier
nucleus, the proton. Two rarer forms, deuterium and tritium, have
nuclei that consist of a proton plus a neutron and a proton plus two
neutrons, respectively. All three of these isotopes of hydrogen have
nuclei that carry a single positive charge equal in magnitude to the
negative charge of the electron. The positive charge of the nucleus
attracts the opposite, negative charge of the electron, and thus binds
the electron to the atom. On the other hand, similar electrical charges
tend to repel one another. Thus, the fusion of two nuclei is opposed
because the two positive charges repel each other.

Deuterium and tritium fuse more readily than other combinations of
nuclei, and fusion reactor designs are therefore generally based on this
process. When a deuterium and a tritium nucleus meet, however, they
are most likely to glance off each other without fusing. Only if their
energies of approach are sufficiently high is there any appreciable
chance that they will come close enough to experience the non-
electrical forces that give rise to nuclear fusion. The minimum energy
of motion required for the deuterium-tritium reaction to take place is
about 10,000 electron volts (eV). This is the energy acquired by an
electron or proton in a 10,000-volt (V) accelerator, or equivalently, is
the average energy of motion of particles at a temperature of about
100,000,000= C. (The term "thermonuclear reactions” refers to fusion
reactions that take place as a result of this thermal motion.) Deuterium
will also react with itself, but the reaction probability becomes appre-
ciable only at temperatures above 1,000,000,000%

The deuterium-tritium reaction yields a helium nucleus, a neutron,
and 1 7.6 million electron volts (MeV) of energy, most of which is carried
off by the neutron. Thus potentially there is roughly a thousandfold
increase over the initial investment of 10,000 eV in the energy of motion
of the deuterium and tritium nuclei. The actual energy multiplication
factor obtained depends on the fraction of the hot fuel that reacts
before escaping or cooling.

The fundamental criterion for a successful fusion reactor is that it
should confine the hot fuel long enough so that a sufficiently large
fraction will react and thereby release appreciably more energy than
was invested in fuel heating. This is known as Lawson’s criterion. For
the deuterium-tritium reaction, the fuel confinement time in seconds
times the density of nuclei per cubic centimeter should exceed 10’^.

In the period 1960-70 it had become relatively easy to achieve high
temperatures and make fusion reactions in a laboratory experiment.
To reach the Lawson criterion, however, remained extremely difficult:
the best numbers that had been achieved were in the range of 10”-
10’2. In order to appreciate the difficulties involved and the nature of
the experimental breakthroughs that are being made, it is necessary
to review some basic properties of high-temperature matter.

112

Thermonuclear plasma

When a liquid Is healed suillciently, it hecomes a gas: the atoms brea
„ee ol each other. When a gas is heated lurther. it becomes a plasma:
the conslltuen, particles of the atoms, the electrons and "
free ol each other. Free nuclei are also called lons. and Ihe break j
process IS called ionisation. In hydrogen, lonisat.on ^

ocraturo ol about to.OOO -relatively low compared to the 100.000.000
Lperalures required for fusion. On the earth natural plasmas are

encountered quite rarely: for esample m lightning
northern liqhts In the universe as a whole, however, the plasma state
sT the mosi bommon condition of matter. The sun and the other
stars are giant fusion reacfors. and .he spaces surrounding them are

filled with dilute plasmas. hp confined

Piasma produced - ^ contact with the
by walls made of ordinary solid matter becaus

walls would cool the plasma. Fortunately, there

fine the electrically charged electrons and ions of a ^ ^

of a magnetic field. In a ^ho^^JghTt can travel freely

gyrate locally around a magne ic i ■ < nipc^ma oarticles across

Ing the line. This conslraln, on the ">7" ^ 7o. .h“ minetic
magnetic field lines is the basis for the concept

If the magnetic bottle is to confine bear the

from cold walls, the "^^^netic field^mus strongest magnetic

pressure of the plasma seeking i,,mes in 1972 were about

fields technically attainable ja^^S-olumes^. ^ ^

100,000 gauss-tOO „„ „p ,0 can a maximum

small horseshoe magnet. A . „ -tmosohere = approximately

pressure of about 400 ^.ithin this limit, a 100.000.000^

14.7 pounds per square inch). P pg^ cubic

plasma can be allowed to Ja"® ^ ^ requires that the fuel

centimeter. Accordingly, th wth nf a second. In most magnetic

must be confined for at least a hun re^ considerably smaller than
bottles the plasma pressure m densities that range

the magnetic field pressure, resu ' densities the con-

down to 10’'’ nuclei per effective fusion range up corre-

finement times necessary to a scientific challenge in con-

spondingly to about a second. magnetic bottles that can

trolled fusion research ,asmas of 100 . 000 . 000 =.

provide such long confinement tin exploding plasmas-

Fusion power can also be pro ^ the initial plasma is

not confined by a magnetic o normal density of solid deute-
sufficiently dense. For examp e ,be Lawson criterion re-

rium-tritium (4 " P^:.!':m:L''.tTs10-secondsat10

quires a reaction time of only seve ^ millimeters. The

During this time the plasma e p ^ cubic millimeter of such a

difficult problem is how to ^ seconds, since this requires

plasma to 100.000.000= in less thaniu

a highly focused energy input of approximately 10= joules at a heating
power of lO'’-' vratts. The recent development of high-poviarao !asa3
is beginning to bring this achievement within the realm of techno-
logical feasibilib’.

Magnetic bottles

Hovi' can plasma particles be kept from escaping in the direction a'ong
magnetic field lines? One obvious solution is to bend the magnet'o
field lines in a circle, making a closed toroidal {dcughnut-shapeo')
magnetic bottle. Another solution is to leat'e the magnetic bcttle open-
ended but make the magnetic field increasingly strong toward each
end of the bottle, causing the magnetic field lines to converge tcv.erd
each end. This is called a "mirror machine." How the mirror machine
confines a plasma particle can be understood by an analogy with a
compass needle between the poles of a C-megnet. A gyrating charged
particle is a small magnetic dipole, as is a compass needle: further-
more. the particle dipole is alwajs diamagnetic {f.e.. like a ccmcass
needle that is oriented so as to repel the two poles of the C- magnet}.
Consequently, the gv'rating particle sisys away from the bvo ends ct
the magnetic bottle. This confinement effect does network fer part'C'as
that are simply flying straight out along a field line instead cf cyrzVr.g
around it. In this sense, the mirror machine is a leakier macn-elicbctt'e
than the torus, which will confine a particle no matter in what directicn
it is moving.

As described above, the thermonuclear raaclion process consists of
energetic nuclei glancing off each other manv times frv electrical
repulsion, until the)* haopen to make a sufficientlv close ccl'ision so
the' they fuse. The macnetic bottle is meant to be a kind cf msefne

place for nuclei that are fusible. The bottle allows these nuclei to go
through their bouncing and fusing interactions without being lost or

'“Unfortunately, the process of bouncing helps particles to escape
rather rapidly from a mirror machine. Two gyrating nude.
in just such a way that they both escape straight out the I" ^

toroidal bottle, the collision process gives rise to a more gradual dif-
fusion of particles across the magnetic held lines. In either case scien-
tists have calculated that plasma confinement times will >ong en^h
to meet the Lawson criterion and make reactor
This is known as the •■classical” confinement prediction for fusion

The main obstacle to progress with fusion power has been that actual
plasmas escape far more rapidly from -^^netic bottle^han one wou d
Lve expected from the classical prediction. The history of exper
in controlled .usion reseercn tnus
„,,ed ov the process ot n"“un,erlno^ arre ,s.n . an^ P
coming these onexpectedi, large los es 1 -"' V

scientists ha.e begun to approach the class, calty preo.c

confinement times.

Mirror Inside hi9h..acuunr sys-

All hot-plasma experiments are c

terns. Mirror-type confineme olasma temperature and

collisions, which are most frequen plasma in the

high density: accordingly, the bu.ld-up •

vacuum must proceed mainly by 1 ,, ,, an initially

dilute plasma rather than “V --ng |bn

dense, cold plasma. In order evnected to operate at tern-

level, open-ended reactors are u im 100.000,000=

peratures above 1.000.000.000-rather than

required in a closed reactor. generation in open-ended

The favored technical consisting of energetic ions

fusion reactors is the inject. externally situated high-
er neutral (uncharged) (kV) accelerator voltage corre-

current ion accelerators. A initiailv only a very small fraction

spends to a 1.000.000.000= P'-^^^'^'Tsm,: as the plasma density
of the injected beam is trappe ,he beam interacts mainly

rises, however, a stage is reac e density build-up then

with previously trapped beam particles and t

grows exponentially. limes achieved experimentally

The plasma densities and con m^ unexpectedly

in open-ended systems There are two principal classes

large plasma losses due to insta 1 1 ' (MHD) modes, in which

of plasma instability: magnetohydrody and microinsta-

,hu plusma behumus gmaly “ "rdiulurbunhes ultur .hu

bilitte in whluh bigh-l'«u.hcy ^
yetecity distrlbulloh ol the push’s PS’"''"'

Magnetic field lines surrounding a
current-carrying v/ire (top) form cfosed
circles. Toroidal magnetic bottles
have a magnetic field pattern ol this
type as their main ingredient (above).
Charged particles must gyrate locally
around a magnetic field line (opposite)
or travel freely along the line.

The most important MHD instability of open-ended systems is the
so-called flute mode, in which a tube of plasma (or the entire plasma)
is displaced into a region of reduced magnetic field. The equilibrium
of the plasma on top of its "magnetic hill” is like that of a mechanical
roller on top of a real hill: an infinitesimal displacement of the roller
in either direction will increase exponentially. Such an equilibrium
is called unstable. It can be shown that plasma elements lying along
the same magnetic field line tend to move in unison, thereby account-
ing for the flutelike structure of the perturbations seen in the illustra-
tion on the following page.

A magnetic bottle of the mirror type
has nonclosed magnetic Held lines
that converge toward each end of the
Dottle (bottom), corresponding to an
increase in field strength. A gyrating
charged particle, which resembles
a diamagnetic compass needle (below).
IS repelled by the ends of the bottle
as the needle is by the ends
of a C-magnet.

Early mirror machine experiments all encountered various forms of
the flute instability. A number of flute-stabilizing techniques were
found, but the most important breakthrough came in 1961, with the
announcement of the first "magnetic well” experiment, carried out at
the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow. As had been noted for many years
by theorists in the United States and the Soviet Union, there exist
special kinds of mirror configurations in which the magnetic field
strength increases in all directions away from the plasma: a plasma
confined in such a magnetic well would thus be expected to be abso-
lutely stable against MHD modes. The Kurchatov experiment was able
to operate alternately in the simple mirror machine configuration
and in a magnetic well configuration. A dramatic flute-stabilization
effect and increase of plasma lifetime was observed in the latter case.
The typical plasma values of the PR-5, a more advanced embodiment
of the Kurchatov experiment, were: ion temperature 50,000,000%
electron temperature 200,000% density 10’® particles per cubic centi-
meter. The plasma lifetime was 3 milliseconds in the stable configura-
tion and only 0.1 milliseconds in the unstable configuration.

Following the PR-5 results, the build-up of hot-ion plasmas in mag-
netic wells was pursued vigorously, mainly by injection and trapping
of energetic neutral atom beams. The Baseball I experiment at the Law-
rence Livermore Laboratory, Livermore, Calif., produced 100,000,000=

in9 narticles oer cubic centimeter and

plasmas The somewhat similar Phoenix II

confinement times of about a lonH rparhed densities

experiment at the Culham Laboratory m to

of nearly 10- particles per cubic ,,her mag-

achieve incipient exponential bui d u eHec These^^^_

netic well experiments confirmed confinement. Experimental

stabilities as a limiting factor in mir ..cKie to realize the ideal

mirror machine plasmas, high, collision-limited

process of exponential bui - P attainable densities were

densities. Instead, the plasma lifetimes and attainable

found to be limited by the form of high-frequency

Microinstabilities in a mirror machine^ta^^^^^^^^

electrical waves. These waves a g ^

manner in which light waves are g^ene^^ abnormal distribution of
for laser action, one needs ^ giant

excited atomic states: these can th oggn-ended magnetic

light pulse. Because of the ^ ^ distribution of particle

bottle, its plasma always has a an arise spontaneously and

velocities. Large-amplitude bottle,

help to knock plasma particles ou "abnormal" the

The severity of the e"d-losses^^ distributions are produced

particle velocity distribution i • particles, all with the same

by injecting a single beam of ® ^ ,n the best distributions the

velocity and moving in the same directions, with a wide

particles are moving almost randomly

range of velocities. . • »■ n experiments, which used single

In early mirror machine injec lo ^ severe microinstabilities

beams with particles all at d, both in simple mirror geom-

and plasma losses were indee u j g^d Phoenix II experiments,

etry and in magnetic wells. In the « distribu-

new techniques were introduced shown to produce

tions more nearly random, e present generation of

favorable effects on plasma s a • puild-up plan is to main-
mirror injection devices, the fbe beginning. Calcula-

tain a nearly random particle possible to realize stable

tions indicate higher than previously reached

conditions at plasma .|.|y

In a simple, axially symmetric mirror
machine, the magnetic held strength
increases toward the hvo ends ol the
magnetic bottle but decreases radially
outward Plasma, being diamagnetic,
therelore seeks to move radially
outward. It can do so either as a
whole (above, lelt) or by means ol
llutelike delormations (above, right).

by the injection technique. Confidence in these theoretical calculations
is supported by the results of the 2X magnetic compression experiment
at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. A nearly random plasma of
80,000,000' ion temperature and 3 x 10 ’^ per cubic centimeter density
was produced by compression of a lower-density, lower-temperature
plasma in a fast-rising magnetic field of the magnetic well type. Evi-
dence of microinstability was observed, but the typical plasma loss
time of 0.3 milliseconds was found to be only about three times faster
than the rate predicted for classical scattering loss.

Toroidal confinement experiments

In a closed magnetic bottle, where plasmas are not lost rapidly by
classical scattering, the favored method of build-up toward a hot,
dense plasma is by raising the temperature of an initially cold, dense
plasma. The plasma, with its free electrons, is an electrical conductor,
and so it can be heated by inducing a current to pass through it, usually
the long way around the torus. Plasma resistance results from the
collisions of the current-carrying electrons with stationary ions; the
power dissipation associated with the collisions causes heating of the
electrons. This is the same process of "resistive" or "Ohmic” heating
that is employed in an electric toaster. The heating method is effective
up to electron temperatures of about 10,000,000', at which point a
hydrogen plasma has about as low a resistivity as standard copper. At
still higher temperatures, the plasma resistivity becomes so low that
resistive heating is too slow to be effective. Auxiliary heating methods.

Advanced mirror machine of the
magnetic weii type has a magnetic
field that increases in strength in all
directions away from plasma.
The plasma is stable
against MHD instabilities.

magnetic field lines — J

therefore, must be used. Plasma compression and the injection of
energetic neutral beams are considered the two most promising meth-
ods for advancing from the resistive-heating stage to the ignition of a
thermonuclear reaction.

The magnetic field of a toroidal magnetic bottle must have a rather
special structure in order to hold a plasma ring in equilibrium. A simple
toroidal magnetic field, like that surrounding a straight wire, is not
good enough; the plasma ring would expand continuously along its
major radius (seeking to move m the direction of decreasing mag-
netic field strength). In order to provide a proper equilibrium, the
toroidal magnetic field lines must be tvyisfed into the shape of a helix.
In the tokamak device, invented in the Soviet Union, this twist is pro-
vided by inducing a toroidally directed current around the plasma
ring. This current also serves to heat the plasma by the electric toaster
method. An alternative approach, invented at the Princeton University
Plasma Physics Laboratory, is the stellarator. In this device the helical
twist of the magnetic field is caused by currents in helical windings
outside the plasma ring. Still other toroidal magnetic bottles use cur-
rents flowing in solid rings that are inside a hollow plasma ring, or
employ circulating beams of high-energy electrons. The tokamak and
stellarator, however, are generally considered the most practical ap-
proaches to a first-generation toroidal fusion reactor.

How do toruses fare in respect to MHD stability of the plasma? As in
mirror machines there is a tendency toward flute instability. Even worse
is the MHD "kink" mode, in which the v/hole plasma column buckles

Ccunriy, PIcmci PhyMO lobo-o-P-v. Pr.-’cr-bn U" '<

The ST tokamak at the Princeton
University Plasma Physics Laboratory
has been one ol the most successlul
toroidal conlinemcnt machines.
Electron temperature is measured
by the scattering of ruby laser light
horn the plasma.

So/fc*o

The T-3 tohamak at the Kurchatov
Institute in Moscow provided the first
breakthrough to high temperatures
and long confinement times in toroidal
machines. Its magnetic field strength
is 35,000 gauss, and currents
up to 200,000 amperes are induced
in the plasma.

in the form of a helix. The kink mode occurs when the plasma current
of a torus is made too large. Stability against the kink mode is one of
the advantages of the tokamak reiative to the "pinch,” a similar toroidai
magnetic bottle with a much larger plasma current.

Experimental research directed toward a toroidal reactor began
mainly with devices of the pinch type, during the early 1950s. The
"pinch effect" is the name given to the magnetic seif-constriction of
conductors through which large currents are passed. {Evidence of
pinching can sometimes be seen even on solid metal lightning rods
that have been hit by large strokes.) High-current pulses of short dura-
tion, typically 100,000 amperes for several microseconds, were passed
through straight plasma columns between two electrodes: or through
toroidal plasmas by transformer induction the long way around the
torus, in this way thin plasma columns at about 1,000.000= with den-
sities of 10'® per cubic centimeter or more were readily produced: but
these plasmas were highly unstable against kink and flute modes— just
as predicted by MHD theory — and were lost typically in less than a
microsecond. Following the prescriptions of the stability theory, a
longitudinal (toroidal) magnetic field component was then added to
stabilize the grossest MHD modes. This approach proved successful,
notably in the large toroidal Zeta device at the Atomic Energy Research
Establishment. Harwell. Eng., where plasma confinement times of
about a millisecond were achieved at temperatures of 1 , 000 , 000 =-

120

fmm

I -v;' / .

1v- //■■•;(; -

/-X.,.--

magnetic field lines

ptrj:??’ .‘*’V

■ ■ ' 'Vn'^ oer cubic centimeter. Small-scale MHD

>,000,000= and densities of 10 P dominated the confine-

modes and other loss t,a,der to the achievement of

ment time and presented a

higher temperatures. ..^n.ctable plasma confinement in toka-

During the 1950s grossly __nstrated at the Kurchatov Institute

maks and stellarators was also e , ^gjory, respectively. Plasmas
and at the Princeton

with temperatures of 100,000 . • heating

per cubic centimeter were P7'’''"® ^ 3 ,ions were found to persist
currents. As in Zeta, unstable confinement times were

in grossly MHD-stable regimes. P confinement times

„„e.p=c„dl, shod. Allor ss.sra. V«' ,„„„d ,h..

at the largo Model C stellarator at W theory

all the data could be jrjcal formula predicted in the late

but by a far more -go, low-temperature plasma studies.

1940s by David Bohm, .H!i^fnL°BTm formula continued to hold.
It then became apparent . joroidal fusion reactor,

there was no possibility of bui 9 mirror machines.

Later investigations from the loss of plasma due

the shortened confinement ,hese electrical disturbances

to microinstabilities. In ^ggnetic field rather than knock-

serve to transport plasma aero ^g^hine. An important disimc-

ing it out the ends, as they do in a mir

A tokamak uses a toroidal magnetic
Held generated by external coils.

The Held lines are twisted somewhat
by a poloidal magnetic Held
component generated by a plasma
current that circulates the long way
around the torus.

live feature turned out to be that microinstabilities in toruses are most
severe when the plasma particles collide very often — that is to say, in
very cold, dense plasmas. On this basis, it was theoretically predicted
about 19B5 that higher-temperature plasmas should shotvmuch longer
confinement than that given by the Bohm formula — if only one could
ever break through to higher temperatures.

The greatly encouraging experimental development in the period
1965-70 was that this prediction was, in fact, correct. The most excit-
ing results were obtained on the T-3tokamak at the Kurchatov Institute,
a device vrith a plasma sufficiently large to permit electron tempera-
tures above 10,000,000= to be reached by Ohmic heating when the
plasma was at a density of lO’^-IO’'' per cubic centimeter. Confine-
ment times of about 20 milliseconds obtained at this record tempera-
ture were approximately 30 times better than the Bohm value, and
were still rising with temperature in approximate agreement with
classical diffusion theory'. These remarkable results were repeated and
confirmed on the ST tokamak at Princeton, a modification of Model C.

At present, larger tokamaks and stellarators are being constructed
in many countries, including the Soviet Union, the United States, and
Great Britain, to take advantage of the improved behavior of high-
temperature plasmas. The tokamak is a relatively simple and inex-
pensive device, and is therefore favored for the initial approach tovrard
developing toroidal reactors. The stellarator, on the other hand, has
possible long-range advantages, such as for the confinement of high-
pressure plasmas.

An important remaining technical problem is to demonstrate the
heating of the plasma ions from their present typical temperature of
about 5,000,000= to the required temperature of 100,000,000=. Plasma
confinement times also still need to be raised to about a second, but
scientists expect that this approximately hundredfold increase would
be contributed automatically by the roughly tenfold increase in plasma
radius when going from present experiments to the toroidal reactor
regime. This is because plasma leakage from a torus takes place by
diffusion, and so the loss times increase characteristically with the
square of the plasma size.

High-density plasma experiments

High plasma density is advantageous in allowing appreciable fusion
reactions to be produced in relatively small and simple experiments.
In the "low-density" mirror and toroidal experiments described in the
preceding sections, the thermonuclear neutron yields obtained from
deuterium plasmas seldom exceeded 10^ neutrons during any one
plasma confinement time. From experiments with very dense plasmas,
much larger neutron yields were obtained, even though the plasma
confinement times were in the microsecond range, or belov/.

Initial high-density experiments were conducted during the 19503
with plasma pinches (as mentioned above). A pulsed current was
passed axially between two electrodes, and the resultant azimuthal

122

magnetic field caused dynamic se ^ ^,ere

current-carrying plasma, ^empera associated with the

generated by the "" 3 , or z pinch, technique was refined

pinching. During the 1960s th ^ Kurchatov Institute.

in the form of the "plasma elsewhere. Their work made

the Los Alamos Scientific La or . ^ millimeters in size m a z-
it possible to produce a cons ^ ^0,9 per cubic centimeter

pinch current channel in which P temperature

densities are heated to some neutron yields achieved

during times of a tenth of a ^..^eded 10” per discharge. The

by this method in deuterium p significant practica

plasma focus constitutes a ne ^o eco-

interest. but it could not be scale

nomical fusion reactor. ,^^m the original z-pmch is

A second line of developm , , 3 sma current is induced

the theta pinch, in which a ^ ^, 3„3 of a pulsed axial mag-

on ,no oudace o. . P'f i

plasma cylinders se t23

In the linear theta pinch a strong
axial magnetic Held is pulsed on,
compressing the plasma dynamicady.
The shock-heated and compressed
plasma then escapes out the ends.

Courtesy, Lawrence Livermore Laborcfory

Possibility of direct conversion
of plasma kinetic energy to electric
energy is demonstrated with 20,000 eV
ion beam. In experiments at Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory, a conversion
efficiency of 96% was achieved. This
technique is especially useful
in recapturing the energy of end-loss
particles in mirror machines.

were heated by shock waves and magnetic compression to tempera-
tures as high as 50,000,000= at densities of 10’®- 10’^ per cubic centi-
meter. The plasma pressure in these straight magnetic bottles is al-
most as large as the pressure of the 100,000-gauss magnetic fields.'
Neutron yields of 10® per discharge were typically obtained from deu-
terium plasmas in these experiments. Similar tests were carried out
in West Germany and the United Kingdom. The plasma confinement
times were limited typically to a few microseconds by the free expan-
sion of the plasma in the direction along the magnetic field. (As a result
of the high plasma density, the scattering rate is too high to permit
long-time mirror-type confinement.) During the available confinement
time there has been no sign of microinstability or anomalous diffusion.
The theta-pinch approach could be applied to a reactor in several ways.
A straight plasma column some kilometers in length would have a
sufficiently long plasma end-loss time to allow the production of
power. A more practical approach, pursued under the name Scyllac
at Los Alamos, was to bend the linear theta-pinch into a stellarator-
like torus of large major radius, thus eliminating the plasma end-
loss altogether. The main drawback to this method is that the curved

124

magnetic tield of a tome tends to Induce MHD instability in higb-pres.

The '“gri Penalties of hot plasma were being obtained no. with
pulsed magnetic fields but by beating solid or l.guid matter wiin highly
fotsed external energy sources. High-powered lasers were parlicu-
larly useful for this purpose. A single neodymium glass laser system
col in less than 10 - seconds produce an infrared >- 9 h. pulse o
about 1 000 joules focused on a millimeter target. When a solid pe let

is being carried on vigorously in ,,,, Neuter-

and France. Neutron yields exceeding

ium targets. If the target can be ^^^’.^"i.te^lTtask is

densities higher than those of normal =di ^ adapting the laser

evidently facilitated. The ^ economical fusion power,

system to the large-scale production .
hov/ever, are considered to be inherently seve

Engineering aspects attainment of the

Since substantial experimental p 9 -umber of technologically

Uwsoh crltcrioh is b.l"g schio.sd » °"9 " "“"T u„.-„agcd
guife dlf.s,ch. -oufcs, Ihc fusioh gTgns .10 simod .10

and the practical functions _ g^sure toroidal deuterium-

correspondingly diverse. The mo ^g gggntative example ol the
tritium reactor will serve here a

engineering problems involved. ^ of 14.1 MeV

The deuterium-tritium reactio P , .5 j^gV jhe tritium con-

energy and an alpha particle aerated, since tritium, unlike

sumed in a fusion reactor must 9 decays with a

deuterium, occurs naturally only m stopped in a blanket

half-life of 12.4 years.) The 14.1 m of

surrounding the plasma volume, breed tritium by nuclear re-
lithium. in which the incident neu ro lithium salts is suitable

actions. A blanket of liquid lithium

for the breeding purpose as we secondary reactions. Breeding

ated by the energetic neutrons and obtained,

ratios of 1.3 tritium atoms per m blanket at a temperature

The generated heat can be remove jj.iye a conventional thermal
in the range 500—1.000- and “^^ .jjggbout two meters in thick-
power plant. The lithium ® ,rom reaching the magnet

ness to prevent any appreciable neutron

coils, which surround the blanket. p^^.^g ,be early 1950s. had

The first fusion reactor plans pr output to energize

,0 divert a substantial fraction of the electr

Carbon dioxide laser is used in fusion
research at the Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory. The laser has a maximum
energy ol 100 joules.

Courtesy, Gulf General Atomic

The Doublet II device at Gull General
Atomic is a tokamak with a verticalty
elongated cross section. This is
designed to permit stable conlinement
of very high-pressure tokamak
plasmas.

the magnet coil system of the magnetic bottle. However, the subsequent
development of superconducting magnets with high field strengths
conveniently removed this requirement. Magnetic field strengths of
50-150 kilogauss produced by superconducting coils are generally
envisaged in present reactor designs. A large fraction of the fusion
reactor capital cost is connected with the magnetic coil system and the
blanket. In reactors designed to operate most economically the minor
radius of the plasma should be at least comparable with the blanket
thickness; that is, about two meters. The corresponding major radius
is 5-10 meters. Such a reactor, given the plasma size, the maximum
available magnetic field strength, and the maximum possible ratio of
plasma pressure to magnetic field pressure {typically 0.05-0.10, for
MHD stability), would provide a total electrical power output in the
range of 1-3 kilomegawatts, enough to sustain a population of about
two million. This is a practical size for modern power stations. The neu-
tron flux through the vacuum chamber surrounding the plasma must
not exceed about 10 megawatts per square meter of wall in order to
avoid excessive rates of radiation damage.

In order to start up a fusion reactor, a plasma heating energy invest-
ment of about a hundred megajoules is required. Thereafter, the plasma
“ignites": its temperature is maintained or increased further by the
3.5 MeV alpha particles of the deuterium-tritium reaction, which are
trapped in the magnetic bottle. The principal process of plasma energy
loss is expected to be the diffusion of hot particies. The eariiest reactors
will probably operate in a slow pulsed mode, burning the fuel as it leaks
out and then beginning a new plasma heating cycle. The problem of
true steady-state operation with continuous fuel injection appears
more difficult, but can be solved in principle.

The basic fuel, deuterium, can be extracted from water at a price
less than a thousandth of the present-day cost of electrical power. The
dominant cost of fusion power will be due to the capital investment in
the reactor, and is estimated to be competitive with the cost of both
conventional and nuclear fission power. The earth’s supply of deute-
rium would be sufficient for more than 10 ’^ years at the present world
rate of energy consumption. The known and probable land reserves
of lithium would suffice for only about 10'’ years at this rate, but 1,000
times more lithium could be extracted from sea water.

The environmental aspects of fusion power are favorable. The
amount of fuel present in the plasma is only a few grams, and there is
no way in which a nuclear explosion could occur. The only radioactive
element or product of the fuel cycle is tritium, which is not a waste
product but a valuable fuel to be recycled. Activated structural mate-
rials. particularly the vacuum wall of the plasma chamber, are expected
to constitute the only radioactive waste. The overall biological hazard
potential is estimated to be sufficiently low so that in the long run it
may be possible to locate fusion reactors close to population centers
and utilize the waste heat from the thermal plant.

One of the most attractive features of fusion power is that even its
126

plasma
vacuum
vacuum wall
vacuum wall coolant
tritium breeding moderator
magnet shield
magnet coll
thermal insulation

remaining enelronmenul delects a.e all ol a kind the.

upon by iulure technology. With advances in lusion tea

Size, purely deuterlunr-burning reactors should come ^ “

economic usefulness. The problems ol 'K"'™

handling, and radioactive waste disposal would 7"

duced. Even the problem ol waste heat

large traction ol the reactor power can be

chLged reaction products and converted directly into a'actrical powe

Schematic representation ol the minor
cross section ol a toroidal lusion
reactor The typical minor diameter
ol the magnet coil is 5- 10 meters

127

trition and the
American Diet

bY Daiddi PsiilETiiaiii

x:y

A “national disaster , . . something I would not feed to my cat or
dog ” was the way a ieading nutritionist described the diet of the
average American in 1972. A possible sign of change was the
growing enthusiasm for organic heaith foods.

No subject in science generates more widespread popuiar concern
than human nutrition. This is true not oniy in the poor, less developed
countries of Asia and Africa but also in the United States and Western
Europe. Among Americans, pockets of poverty produce genuine hun-
ger and illness, infant mortality, and progressively disabling gaps in
school performance. The more affluent struggle against obesity and
worry about the insatiable appetites of youngsters who consume
"empty calorie" snacks by the ton while ignoring all rational advice
about vitamins, minerals, and adequate protein. The counter-culture
fixes on the most bizarre of diets: fruit, fasting, or the brown rice of
macrobiotics. At the same time, the businessman flirts with the "drink-
ing man’s diet" or battles his cholesterol level with safflower margarine,
while the housewife curbs her appetite with amphetamines and
"nourishes” herself with vitamin pills.

All of us put food into our bodies, and to many it becomes a mystique,
a symbol, a cure, a preoccupation. Only rarely is it a guilt-free pleasure.

Science has made great strides m understanding the role that nu-
trients can play in keeping man healthy The laboratory has produced
valuable enrichments and fortifications for major items in the daily diet,
as v/ell as processed snack foods and advertised edibles that offer
little nutrition at excessive cost. The laboratory can produce an imita-
tion v/hipped cream with no food value at all. and textured soy proteins
so valuable they may work a revolution m feeding the hungry. Agri-
cultural science breeds steers with meat so vrell-marbled it is un-
healthily rich in heart-endangering fats, but the same science breeds
nev/ high-lysine corn strains that v/ili add critically important amino
acids to meager peasant diets abroad

A growing consumer movement in the United States demands stricter
regulation of food additives, more explicit labeling of ingredients, and
improved nutrition values in the marketplace. Yet millions of Americans
eat fewer and fewer home-prepared "balanced" meals, while sales of
pizzas, hamburgers, fried chicken, and fish-and-chips soar in the more
than 30,000 franchised "fast food" outlets that crov/d U.S. highways
and shopping centers.

DAVID PERLMAN, science editor lor
the San Francisco Chronicle, has been
president of the National Association
of Science Writers and is a member of
the Council for the Advancement of
Science Writing

Malnutrition in the United States

America's food consumption is more abundant and more varied than
that of any other nation, yet malnutrition is surprisingly widespread.
Hunger and serious dietary deficiencies among the poor have made
headlines in recent years: less well-known are the nutritional inade-
quacies of the nonpoor.

The U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, for example,
completed in 1971 a detailed nutrition survey in 30,000 American
homes of all income levels in 10 states. While nearly 8% of the families
with incomes below the poverty level showed undesirably low intakes
of two or more important nutrients, 2.5% of the nonpoor families had
similar inadequate diets. Deficiencies in iron, vitamin A, vitamin C,

proteins, and calories were common. Approximately 25% of the poor
and 12% of the nonpoor families were not receiving enough iron;
vitamin A was low in 8.5% of the poor and 7.5% of the nonpoor: and
vitamin C was inadequate in 7.2% of the poor and 4.3% of the nonpoor.

In a report to the U.S. Congress, the National Center for Disease
Control reported even more startling figures from individual states.
About 21% of the low-income families it surveyed in Texas— whether
below or above the recognized poverty level— had diets that provided
less than half the officially recommended calories. In New York 13% of
the poverty families and 9% of the above-poverty families were equally
undernourished. In Michigan 1 7% of the poverty group were eating less
than half the recommended calorie allowance, and 10% of the above-
poverty group had the same inadequate diet. Protein deficiencies were
also striking: 10% of all the Texas families were consuming less than
half the protein they needed. In New York severe protein deficiency was
found in the diet of 11% of the poverty families, although less than 3%
of the somewhat more affluent families showed the same protein de-

George M Briggs, a professor at the University of California's depart-
„.ent rnutritional sciences at BerKeley has called the America die

•' ^nri that its deficiencies cost the public at

in medics, b,„s ' Tne costs o, m^nclllon ,r,

.a, IOCS loods-he lound this pe, year ol

Americans eat an average ^ oroducts and legumes,

„„„s, .age, aces, whole J, p,p, „po coniains 276

while at the same time ppashed rice. "This is a terrible

r. "'edL^Sd”" Icldn't .eed i. to m, ca, or dog, le, atone a .arm
animal."

What is malnutrition? American Medical Associa-

The Council on Foods and Nutrition o impaired functional

tion (AMA) defines ^ development brought about

ability or deficient structural m g essential

by a discrepancy between the JuPPlyjo

nutrients and calories an damage and improper intake of

This definition includes both ^hen an individual is

nutrients. It is difficult, however, ^any deficiencies do

suffering from the effects of poor aam; in some the symptoms

net damonstrat. p,l„.,i;, In poor rasistanca ,0

araobscuraandmaniast

disease or infection, or in delay manifestations, is m-

"Malnutrition, because it can defined, it can be

sidious," says the AMA. ' ^gj^al malnutrition exemplified by

found under many situations^ , a small segment of the spectrum. The

vitamin deficiency diseases is u , ^ tjon-growth retardation,

less dramatic manifestations of malnu

weight loss, increased burden of chronic diseases, depression, weak-
ness, retarded convalescence from disease and trauma, poor per-
formance in pregnancy — are widespread and of great significance.
Infections in the undernourished are more devastating, persist longer,
and result in a much higher death rate in malnourished children."

Since the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health in
1969, the U.S. government has moved more aggressively into the
dietary picture. The Department of Agriculture distributed 1.3 billion
pounds of surplus food to 3.6 million American poor people in 1971,
and by early 1972, 11.2 million people were receiving government food
stamps to increase their purchasing power. The food distributed by the
government was fortified and balanced to include all the recommended
levels of protein, minerals, and vitamins. Also by early 1972 the federal
school lunch program covered more than 25 million children, of whom
8.1 million received their lunches free or at reduced prices.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed new label-
ing rules requiring clearer identification of the nutrient content of
processed foods. The FDA also proposed that even frozen TV dinners
be required to contain at least one-third of the recommended daily
nutrient allowances if they were advertised as complete meals. Scien-
tists in the laboratories of the FDA, the Department of Agriculture, and
industry all experimented with fortifying more foods, creating new
foods richer in essential nutrients, and developing new products from
protein sources as disparate as soybeans, fishmeal, algae, and bacteria

Determining proper nutrition

What is proper nutrition? Almost any reasonably educated American
thinks he knows the answer to this question, and many probably do.
Yet the lures of suggestive advertising, the diet fads and phobias, and
the confusing display of 7,800 different items for sale in the average
supermarket all combine to distort eating habits among even the most
affluent, and to warp wholesome nutrition patterns for everyone.

Fredrick J. Stare, the chairman of Harvard University's department
of nutrition, says, "The one and only 'magic formula' for healthful eat-
ing lies in the variety of foods eaten and in not eating too much." Stare
and his colleagues listed four basic food groups:

1. Dairy products— milk, cheese, ice cream, yogurt, and other foods made
from milk.

2. Meat and other high-protein sources such as fish, poultry, eggs, cheese,
dried beans and peas, and nuts.

3. Cereal products — enriched and whole-grain cereals of varying types.

4. Vegetables and fruits.

These four groups of foods, according to Stare, can provide all the
nutrients known to be essential to man, plus a host of trace elements
whose dietary role in tiny quantities is still being explored.

In the United States a group of scientists make up the Food and
Nutrition Board, which is sponsored by the National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council and is responsible for setting
134

h«ir Standards for the public's daily nutrient needs. These standards
Lied the Recommended Dietary Ailo.%ances, or RDA. are Published

every five years. The newest RDA list, compiled ^

of Harvard’s D. Mark Hegsted. was scheduled to be published m 1973.
of Harvard u. m y recommendations for men.

include A, D, E. and C, an rr^merals in the RDAs include

riboflavin, thiamine, Be, a 12 - .T^aqnesium. Other minerals

calcium, phosphorus. ^let-millionths to thou-

that must be present in chromium, selenium, fluoride,

sandths of a gram per day Evidence is growing that

molybdenum, copper, zinc, an . minerals,

tin, nickel, and vanadium are ^ task, and scien-

Setting allowances for P^r.n nutrition research,

tists by no means agree on app developing precise

animal experiments are a mo monkey can be deprived of a

information. A rat or a chick,^°r^--

given nutrient, and the e deficiency disease,

measured as a decrease in sta ure metabolites. But the

or an alteration in blood levds^^^ ,hat

applicability of these resu damaging effects of severe de-

most human experiments to tes volunteers.

ficiencies are too malnourished families-among the

Studies of children and ^'‘'"‘"'"„..„ 3 ^here starvation is endemic

American poor or the peoples of

-can yield valuable information, thousands of children in

Tha,, is ampla '» .. tbei- diets leeK vda™"

the less developed countries go average Ameri-

A. But how much vitamin A ^ D can certainly prevent

can’s diet before toxic effects 3 „ ^here people receive

and cure rickets, although it is rrot fortification

adequate sunlight. But at wha g^d kidney problems?

of foods with vitamin D lead VP Capt. James

Vitamin C deficiency is know century to prevent the

Cook fed lime juice to his ship s c vitamin C. is part

disease. Today a daily glass o ^g^^ggsg scientists have learned

of the American way of life or ormally discarded by the body.

that excess amounts of vitamin C a

there is ordinarily little danger of o ^^,3,iog3hip to the common

A recent issue involving v'tamm C milligrams

cold. Can vitamin C in ^3^^5216 Linus Pauling claims? Univer-

prevent or cure colds, as Nob grams a day)

sity of Maryland ® risqner-volunteers and then inoculated

of vitamin C to a group of experimenters found no

them with cold virus effect of the vitamin C and the

difference at all between the protect

effect of placebos. Many other experiments also failed to prove Paul-
ing’s claims. "The . . . efficacy of vitamin C in the treatment of the
common cold and other viral infections is still an open question,"

-sra says Sheldon Margen, of the University of California's department of

nutritional sciences at Berkeley. "However, I also believe that there is
still inadequate evidence of its efficacy and safety and that until
^ further well-controlled, definitive studies are undertaken— advocating

’’ large doses of ascorbic acid [vitamin C] at this time is totally un-

warranted.*’

Of' arthV°ecent trends in American nutrmon, the most ^

=====

: - .e P.P.

“t r:::"rpp„., pp- pp,p»ppp. : “r^r

.,any of the achievements of being concealed,

known hazards to the environme , ■ p.^elations: that chlorinated

The suspicion is J eggshells of birds: that cycla-

hydrocarbon pesticides can g - monosodium

mate sweeteners cause bladder tumors , ats
glutamate, the widely used flavor-enhancer, causes

infant mica. ir-ninnn* Willia*^ Caster, a

Some processed foods deepen is -P ^ t.^ional value of
„„„phpr at me Um.emlt, «' f ,ha, pro-
se commercial rjry cereal led exclusively on them,

moted excellent tissue grow \ 5 ^,^^ and

But he found 20 brands-mcludmg -

promoted-that could a complete mixture of vita-

supplemented the packaged

mins and minerals. known, suspicion in-

When experiments like this e ^ ^ the food industry

creases, A receot rpubllo expressed tears

found widespread public ' ^ ^ot being protected by govern-

that the needs of food consumers were

ment or industry in the . natural foods grows. And it

So the preoccupation , ^^ves. Judd Marmor. clinical

is reinforced by deep psyc o . -j.y of California at Uos Angeles,
professor of psychiatry at the Un>ve^^y^of

says: "For all people, what goes 1 food is

their bodies is strongly ^sso^ia .lo^pure. dirty, poisonous.’ To

•pure, clean. and happy- The converse means in-

eat well is to be secure, healt y.

security, starvation, and de^ath. marked by a tre-

The public’s turn toward org and many

mendous increase in the num .^g organic products. Often

supermarkets now carry g„; chemistry defines any matter

me label "organic" means "omi P |„c,„des everylbing ol planl
containing carbon as „ ,isl. an apple cider plant, to.

and animal origin. Thus, it is „„ One batch ol apple lu.ce

example, andtvatch the two-pongcd^ ^
is iiitered to a clear iiguld "P „e apple crop.

labeled -organic." Bo.hcome in.m m^^ aosts

trees-tertlliaed. sprayed, yet

far more than the Other. 137

Diets

Far more dangerous than the interest in organic foods is the surge of
extraordinary diets that has swept the country. Most are designed to
attack obesity, but some aim at more profound changes: inner peace,
spiritual growth, the cure of disease. Most range from useless to
dangerous.

In the pursuit of slimness, Americans spend $100 million a year on
reducing pills, diet books, special get-thin foods, and exercise ma-
chines. Jean Mayer, one of the world’s foremost authorities on nutrition
and overweight says:

"The place for an obese person to obtain a reducing diet is the office
of a physician ... or a weight-reduction clinic which is applying sound
nutritional principles under medical direction. What a good many
people fail to recognize, however, is that no one particular diet is
appropriate for everybody. Good but personally irrelevant diets and all
quack diets would be forever ignored if each of us recognized the value
of a varied diet, consisting of sufficient but not too much total content,
tailored to individual needs."

Two of the most widely advertised reducing diets are the "Doctor's
Quick Weight-Loss Diet” and the "Doctor’s Quick Inches-Off Diet,"
both promoted by Irwin Stillman. The first emphasizes high protein and
low carbohydrate intake, plus eight glasses of water a day. According
to Philip L. White, director of the AMA’s department of food and nutri-
tion, the diet proposes a dangerously low level of carbohydrate con-
sumption that can cause excessive protein breakdown and impair the
maintenance of brain and nerve cells.

The "inches-off” diet involves cutting down drastically on protein,
with the promise that the dieter can lose weight in specific parts of his
body. "That’s a complete fallacy,” says White. "Even ifit were true, this
kind of diet would cause loss of muscle tissue as well as fat.” And he
adds: "In my judgment this diet can be extremely hazardous, because
it is very low in protein. So low that it can in fact cause the dieter to lose
protein from his own body, to use up muscle and organ tissue and
generally weaken the body. Anyone who is already unhealthy because
of organ damage— liver problems, kidney damage, heart disease,
anemia— can be put in a very hazardous situation by further tissue
depletion.”

Nutritionists raise similar objections to most other diets that offer
promises of dramatic weight reduction— banana diets, grapefruit diets,
the "Air Force diet” that has nothing to do with the Air Force, and the
"Mayo diet" that has nothing to do with the Mayo Clinic.

In a far different arena are the diets that promise to cure disease or
enhance the spirit. By far the most dramatic of these is "Zen macro-
biotics,” a movement that calls itself ”A return to natural living.” The
movement was founded by Georges Qhsawa, a Japanese philosopher
and writer who died in 1966. Zen macrobiotics has little to do with Zen
Buddhism — in fact, practicing Buddhists scoff at the diet and particu-
larly at its claims of curing disease.

rrr" s;rr.::r .r:r:L »,

"jlLr. .in,,, and ,.cc, on„o , 00 ,. Sind, art,. Z,n

biotics prescribes whole-gram cereals
ilood pressure and low blood pressur
;oy sauce and raw eggs for heart dr
Basing its philosophy on the anr
Detween opposing forces of yin (ti
/ang (male, active), the cult of macr
be selected as nearly as possible i

yang. Cereals are closest to »he ide^

Japanese potatoes are at opposite extremes; yogurt and

ror muse w —

presses made from ginger and yucca ..a, ■ — _ ' ^ h

biotics prescribes whole-grain cereals and se am s « for 9

blood pressure and low blood pressure and whole-gram
soy sauce and raw eggs for heart disea^ concept of balance

Basing its philosophy - ;';^; 7 ;r;°:;:%assive principle) and

between opposing forces o y , teaches that foods should

yang (male, active), the cult between yin and

be selected as ^ ^ fggp.ant is extremely yin, while

yang. Cerea^ are clos 3^^,^ 3,, cabbage are

yang. Cereals are closest to »he ideal g^gp^^^

Japanese potatoes are at opposite extremes; yogurt and

balanced. Snails and pheasant ^.eats and all

goat's milk, pineapples and apple.

drugs are to be avoided ,^ould be sauteed

In a typical macrobiotic br sjeamed carrots and soybean

rolled oats, while the rest mig Lunch v/ould be buckwheat

paste broth garnished with green oni sauce. Dinner

noodles in broth, sauteed broccol , soybean

cheese. All this might see variations of the macrobiotic

.,o„s.,ds of , 0 ,,, p,°p" p™ r

diet, never recognizing Us gross e i , pgs worked with

Oa„. E,P„d, a public b«“'' *'^ 1 ' 1 “, ,,oups in an allprt lo

cganic vegetarian communes an principles o, nutfilion.

make them understand some o jj^ ^ng people she could

Fortunately, she found that in discussions ,,^^3 of

stress moderation and variety, an found that macrobiotic cook-

diet to the principles of yin of water, preserved most

ing. by emphasizing speed SP oould be achieved

nutrients; and that at leas s ggfym and yang in the selection

by encouraging nutritious com 1 j- g v/ith macrobiotics and

0, ioods. Most young PC«P";j;,;;™;U.edge ol ,-ue nutritional

Other extreme diets, however,

balance and reject such advice. noble

"Regardless of the unde'’y '"9 macrobiotics constitute a

and sincere, the concepts P^°Pf .^-e.ous to its adherents." says
major public health problem and ..^3333 of scurvy, anemia

the AMA's Council on ^ otein due to inadequate intake),

hypoproteinemia (wasting ^ emaciation due to starva-

hypocalcemia (decrease m J ^3 gddition to loss of kidney

tlon. and other i”'™ have been reported, some o,

function due to restricted 1 _
which have resulted in dea

According to Fredrick Stare: "There is nothing nutritionally wrong
with vegetarian diets; they provide a variety of fruits and vegetables
plus frequent use of legumes, particularly soybean products and nuts.
Most vegetarians consume generous quantities of milk and eggs. Good
vegetarian diets are very healthful.” But to Stare the extremes of
macrobiotics are "no more than an excursion into make-believe
Oriental cultism . . . the most dangerous food fad around."

Nutrition and disease

Diet and disease are not linked in food fads alone: there is ample scien-
tific evidence— and much scientific controversy— bearing on the rela-
tionship between what man eats and the illnesses he falls heir to.

Milk, the most nearly ideal food of all, can cause abdominal pain and
diarrhea in many black children whose genes sometimes ordain a
defect in the milk-digesting enzyme called lactase, in other children a
genetic defect that prevents the breakdown of the amino acid phenyl-
alanine is known as phenylketonuria, or PKU. Milk contains phenyl-
alanine, and in PKU babies the penalty for milk-drinking is mental
retardation. Milk-substitutes in their diet can prevent most of the brain
damage if the disease is discovered early enough. Forty-three states
now require PKU testing for all new-borns, and the tests discover 200
defective babies each year.

Far less clear are the relationships between diet and mental health,
although evidence is strong that sound maternal nutrition before birth
and adequate protein in early childhood are essential for full brain
development. Some psychiatrists, such as Abram Hoffer of Saskatche-
wan, insist that schizophrenia is a vitamin deficiency disease, and that
daily doses of the B vitamin niacin (nicotinamide or nicotinic acid) can
prevent it, Linus Pauling, who coined the term "orthomolecular psy-
chiatry,” believes this too, but the vast majority of psychiatric profes-
sionals believe the evidence is tenuous if not delusional.

A new field for research is the possible relationship between diet and
cancer. Denis P. Burkitt of the British Medical Research Council pro-
posed recently that diets which are low in cellulose roughage— in other
words, the typical refined-foods diets of highly industrialized Western
nations- may be a major cause of cancer of the colon and rectum. This
disease kills 46,000 Americans a year, and Burkitt contended that the
cause may lie in the fact that refined foods move through the large
intestine much more slowly than those containing roughage. Any
cancer-causing elements, such as bacteria or obscure chemicals,
would therefore have more time to initiate tumors in the colon before
being excreted, Burkitt reasoned.

There is epidemiological evidence supporting this view. Corn-eating
Bantu tribesmen in Africa have an exceptionally low incidence of colon
cancer, and the incidence is eight times higher in Connecticut than in
roughage-eating Cali, Colombia. Colon cancer is rare in China, but
Chinese immigrants in Hawaii show rates approaching those of U.S.
whites.

140

At present, this evidence only hints at an association, and H. Marvin
Pollard, president of the American Cancer Society, warns against any
changes in diet as a result of Burkitt's suggestion. "We don't really
have much information on the relationship of high- and low-roughage
diets and carcinoma of the colon,” Pollard said as he urged a carefully
controlled international study of the problem,

David G, Jose of the University of Minnesota was struck some years
ago by the fact that although serious malnutrition is a major cause of
infection and childhood death in Australian aborigines, these same
malnourished people show an abnc^maiiy iovj incidence of cancer,
Jose, a pediatric immunologist, v/ondered if protein-calorie defi-
ciencies in the diet might selectively a'ter the body's immune mecha-
nism. The deficiencies may weaken immunity against bacterial infec-
tion, Jose reasoned, while maintaining and perhaps enhancing cellular
resistance to such invasive agents as viruses and malignant tumor cells.

Jose tested his reasoning by cutting calories and protein in the diets
of rats and mice bred for their high susceptibility to various tumors.
The animals did not grow as quickly, but their resistance to cancer was
greatly increased. In the malnourished mice, m fact, tumors stopped
spreading and the animals lived twice as long as normally nourished
mice. "It’s really premature to consider at this time any application of
this type of therapy to human situations," Jose said, "but it is possible
that v/ith certain tumors and in certain situations this might be feasible.’’

In heart disease, despite widespread recent acceptance of the low-
cholesterol, low-fats hypothesis, the role of diet in preventing heart
attacks is still highly controversial. There are so many risk factors in
coronary disease that no single cause-and-effect concept appears to
be valid. Heredity plays a part, as do exercise (it should be moderate
and regular); stress (the hard-driving and aggressive fare far worse):
cigarette smoking (this shoots the heart attack rate way up); obesity
(sudden cardiac death is three times as frequent among the fat); and
high blood pressure (a major factor in heart disease and stroke). All
told, approximately 165,000 persons under 65 die of coronary heart
disease each year in the U.S.

The American Heart Association began urging diets low in the pro-
portion of saturated fats in 1968. By 1971 most doctors were heeding
the recommendations of the Inter-Society Commission for Heart
Disease Resources, a group of 150 specialists from 29 leading health
agencies appointed by the Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare to evaluate the coronary controversies and to recommend action.
The commission acknowledged that there is no conclusive proof yet
that lowering fats and cholesterol in the diet will curb heart attacks. It
did note that in every nation where custom or necessity dictates diets
low in these elements the heart disease rate is likewise low.

In monkeys, the commission noted, the case against cholesterol has
been proved experimentally: in man, Jeremiah Stamler of Chicago, one
of the nation's most famed heart specialists, believes he has shown the
same thing. The commission, therefore, recommended that overweight
Americans reduce their caloric intake to slim dov/n; that cholesterol
in the average diet be cut in half from its present level of about 600
milligrams a day: and that dietary fats be limited to less than 35°o of
total calories, with only 10% coming from foods such as fatty meats,
egg yolks, whole milk, butter and cheese, solid shortenings, pies, and
doughnuts — all of which contain large amounts of saturated fats or
cholesterol.

Significantly, the commission also made major recommendations to
the government and the food industry for clearer labeling of the fat
content of foods, and for the development of low-cholesterol dairy
products, leaner livestock, and revision of the dietary content of school
lunches and food allov/ances for the poor.

By 1972 some of these recommendations were being implemented:
school lunch menus were changing, and the FDA was proposing that
labels of processed foods be required to contain precise information
as to the source of fat content — such as beef fat, cottonseed oil, and
corn oil. Mariufacturers would also be permitted to label foods with
precise figures as to percentages of fat, the caloric content of average
servings, and the proportion of unsaturated fats to total fats.

America’s most intensive long-term study of heart disease has been
conducted in Framingham, Mass., by the National Heart and Lung
Institute. More than 5,000 of the community's residents have been
checked and tested and followed closely since 1 949. William B. Kannel,
medical director of the Framingham project, says:

"The typical diet in North America gives every indication of being a
contributor to our high atherosclerosis mortality. There is much in-
direct evidence that a diet too rich in saturated fat, cholesterol, sucrose,
and calories is a prominent feature of our current life style contributing
to the high death rate."

Like the Inter-Society Commission, Kannel is careful to qualify his
conviction: "This is not to say that we have direct evidence that what a
free-living person eats is, in fact, a major determinant of their blood
lipid characteristics and whether they develop clinical atherosclerotic
disease.” Kannel acknov/ledges that most people would far rather take
142

bitter pills or do almost anything then change their diets, or get more
exercise, or give up smoking. But he nas a s'mple and practical sugges-
tion, vrhich is seconded by the Amencan Heart Association;

"Until some modification of the ^at onai diet is finally agreed upon
and implemented,” Kannel says, "those mterested in lowering their
own blood cholesterol value can atter-p' tr.'s Dy low/-fat cookery v/hich
emphasizes fish, poultry, and lean meats ana by avoiding organ meats
[liver, kidney, heart, etc.], butter, vyhoie m v. and fatty cholesterol-rich
cheeses, with fruit substituting for ar' nciai'y sweet desserts at the end
of the meal. For persons with high se'-cm cholesterol values, particu-
larly those with associated hypertenS'O'^, ir^, paired glucose tolerance,
obesity, and cigarette habit, this beeches a matter of some urgency."

The American diet today is certainly a -ch one: far too many over-eat
and eat wrongly. In poverty areas descencies of many kinds abound,
yet malnutrition is also widespread ar’ c^g the affluent. Scientific
knov/ledge can now point to a more -a'lcnal diet for everyone, and as
the American Medical Association's Council on Foods and Nutrition
says:

"The cost of a massive attack upon hunger and malnutrition will be
great in money; the cost of doing nothing v/ill be immeasurable in
terms of lost human potential and socia‘ unrest."

FOR ADDITIONAL READING:

Bogert, L. J., Briggs, G. M., and Calloway, D. H., Nutrition and Physi-
cal Fitness (W. B. Saunders Co.. 1972).

Deutsch, Ronald M., The Family Guide to Better Food and Better
Health (Creative Home Library, 1971).

Food and Nutrition Board, Recommended Dietary Allov/ances
(National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1968. New
edition due in 1973).

Mayer, Jean, Overv/eight (Prentice-Hall. Inc.. 1969).

Stare. Fredrick J., Bating for Goad Health (Doubleday & Co.. 1964).

White. Philip L, Let's Talk About Food (American Medical Associa-
tion. 1970).

143

bif Lewis

. BrsRSConib

nno nf \h 9 fev/ holdouts in an incraasingly
The United States remains one of the tew n

metric world. Wili the nation convert, and if so. h

we be affected?

„ July 1971,

change to the international metr V ^ 200-year-oId debate

Thus opened what may be t e in America. Should the

over the measurement language pounds, inches, feet, and

United States replace its ^.,i,PP,eters?Vhe decision is

miles with liters, kilograms, • voices will be

,0 congress, but betor. tho clesr-eu. resolu-

raises In oubllc debate o.er an issue tbat bas

lion lor the nation's , deoimallsed syslem ol measure-

Thomas Jefferson first nation faced the difficult ques-

ment in 1790. Thus the young Amer weights and

iion ol wbelbor to esiablisb lormali, « " ■ „ ,ne metric

measures, or to adopt a new system such

system adopted by France in 179 ^ Congress to "fix the

The Constitution (Art. I. bee. _ p^ggjjent George Washington
standard of weights and .gsponsibilities in this area,

asked Congress in 1790 to a re ^ measures of the

saying "Uniformity in the curren^- will. 1 am per-

United States, is an object of great

suaded, be duly attended to. Secretary of State John

The issue was raised again in ’ ••Report Upon Weights and
Quincy Adams submitted to issue, for although he

Measures.” Adams' report di n 3 simple, rational, and

made a very strong case for the a ^^ggprement based on decimal
internationally p'^incipal trading partners of the United

mathematics, he noted tha system that would insure inter-
states were not agreed on ® already had rescinded the

national compatibility. Indeed. concluded that

requirement for metric usage m France,
metric conversion was prema u

Keystone

This is not a

its 300 mm

Eye-catching posters displayed
throughout Great Britain
by the Construction Industry Training
Board were designed to help the nation
convert to the metric system.
Two other examples are shown
on succeeding pages. Common
equivalents between the metrlo
and present U.S. systems are shown
on the opposite page.

LEWIS M. BRANSCOMB until May 1972
was director of the U.S. National
Bureau of Standards and now is chief
scientist and vice-president ot IBM
Corp. His many publications include
several articles on conversion to the
metric system.

While one European nation after another adopted the metric system,
the United States continued to use inch-pound measures, and built the
greatest engineering and industrial capability the world has ever seen.

Today, the task of simplifying and harmonizing the U.S. system of
weights and measures remains unfinished. Congress, in the Miller-
Peil-Griffin Act of 1968, asked the executive branch to conduct a three-
year study of the advantages and disadvantages of U.S. adoption of the
metric system. The report, prepared by the National Bureau of Stan-
dards, found many of the circumstances faced by John Quincy Adams
profoundly changed.

There no longer is any doubt whether the metric system will be
accepted internationally as the predominant measurement language.
Since World War II, Japan, India, Greece, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,
North and South Korea, Indonesia, Vietnam (North and South), and
many other nations have changed from a variety of measurement sys-
tems to the metric system. More important to the United States, the
British Commonwealth nations have also committed themselves to
the change. The United Kingdom is more than half-way through a 10-
year conversion process. South Africa and Australia are also in the
process of conversion. Even Canada, which has close commercial and
technical ties with the United States is committed to change, with only
the timetable remaining to be set. The United States is one of only 13
nations, including Tonga, Trinidad, Sierra Leone, and Yemen (Aden),
that have not yet adopted the metric system. All the industrialized trad-
ing partners of the United States now are committed to an internation-
ally harmonized metric system.

Arguments for the metric system

Why have so many nations voluntarily assumed the task and expense
of changing their system of measurement? Adams noted how deeply
the language of weights and measures is rooted in every phase of life.
"The knowledge of them, as in established use," he wrote, “is among
the first elements of education, and is often learned by those who learn
nothing else, not even to read and write. This knowledge is riveted in
the memory by the habitual application of it to the employments of
them throughout life.” Proponents of the metric system argue that the
system is simpler, easier to learn, and much more amenable to arith-
metic operations because the units are compatible with decimal arith-
metic. The metric system, properly called the "International System
of Units (SI)," is the first complete, streamlined, internally compatible
system of measurement the world has known, designed to best serve
the needs of scientists and engineers in all disciplines. But neither of
these arguments is necessarily persuasive. Many who infrequently
need to make exact calculations find convenient the great variety of
customary units for the same quantity (inch, foot, yard, mile).

The strongest argument for general adoption of Si is found in the
predictable and persistent inconvenience and expense of having to
use both systems simultaneously. Because the United States is the

146

approximate common equivaior'.s

1 inch
1 foot
1 yard
1 mile

— 25 mi'.irre'ers
0.3 rr.sier

— 0.9 rreter

— » 1 0 k-ic.'^0*'=irs
1 square inch 6.5 sq.^a'e -.enlimeters
1 square foot = 0.C9 sa.are rreter
1 square yard rz 0.3 ".''..art meter
lacre =C4-ettare

1 cubic inch = 16 et c centimeters
1 cubic foot = C.03 emc meter

1 cubic yard rr 0.3 cud, c meter

1 quart —

igailon = 0.004 cubic meter

1 ounce =26 grams

1 pound = 0.45 kilogram

1 horsepower =0.75 kilowatt

1 millimeter
1 meter
1 meter
1 kilometer
1 square centimeter
1 square meter
1 square meter
1 hectare

1 cubic centimeter
1 cubic meter
1 cubic meter
1 liter

1 cubic meter
1 gram
1 kilogram
1 kilowatt

= 0.04 inch
= 3.3 feet
= 1.1 yards
= 0.6 mile
= 0.16 square inch

— 11 square feet

— 1.2 square yards
= 2.5 acres

= 0.06 cubic inch
=: 35 cubic feet

— 1.3 cubic yards
= 1 quart

= 250 gallons
= 0.035 ounces
= 2.2 pounds
— 1.3 horsepov/er

. trade and the most pervasive

n v/ith the largest volume o world, the invasion of

amic and cultural ;;:;::X ,ives is assured. 1^^

c language and designs JJly widespread in the United

,se of metric measures is P scientific and medical

,s today. Now the ^g^ily in engineering. The phar-

arch, metric usage is ^ ^otographic industries are sub-

eutical, frictionless bearing, an P domestic

tially metric today. Not only '^P°^jgg,s for their maintenance,
s contain metric parts and nee accustomed to metric

Olympic Games have ^ to metric sizes for

Its, and U.S. swimming poo .5 retail trade are

reason. A growing number o P and most American school

;led in metric as well as ^ ' e of their books. The testi-

dren now encounter metric uni questionnaires of the U.S.

ny of thousands of ^^^pondents ^ ^ ^ businessmen

trie Study reveals that a subs an
ieve increasing use of the metric system

, best interest of the nation. j^^^oming more commonplace,

rherefore, with conversions

lericans will have to ^ipm but back and forth bei\.ee

t only within the customary system.

meter

! 1 2 3 '4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

i ' inches

or 1 liter (approximately) 0.346 liter

or 1.000 cm’ or 946 cm’

: !

i

14

: u

15 15

Relationships between common
■eights and measures ol the metric
and U S systems are shown
graphically. A meter is compared
!o a yard, a centimeter to an inch,
a liter to a liquid quart, and
a I'ilogram to a pound.

customary and metric. This situation already prevails in technology,
scientists and engineers must make these conversions in order to
interpret one another’s work. It will affect increasingly skilled workers,
teachers, and lawmakers. Although the large multinational corpora
tions have demonstrated that they can manufacture U.S.-designed
products in metric countries without major difficulties, added costs
are incurred, such as two sets of drawings to different dimensions.
Workers and small business subcontractors face greater uncertainty
in a mixed measurement society because they can predict less easily
when they may be called upon to deliver work designed to metric
specifications.

The problem of mixed measurement languages cannot be resolved
quickly, since a generation must pass before everyone finds the metric
language intuitively familiar. In fact there are significant vestiges of
imperial units in countries that have been metric for decades, just as
the vara (a Spanish unit of land measure) persists in Texas and the
Southwest. But the implications of metric change for standard designs
and dimensions — the hardware aspects of going metric suggest a
more rapid timetable of 10 years for a U.S. changeover.

During the decade of the 1970s, the metric report concludes, there
probably will be developed through international engineering organi
zations a set of metric language industrial standards. These standards
are the dictionary of the marketplace in a technologically advanced
nation, describing the sizes, test methods, product characteristics, and
other conventions for every kind of component and product. Used as

148

1 1 1 I 1 1 >

22 23 25 26 27 28

2 feet

1 kilogram

1 pound

1 pound = 0.45359237 kg

■n.»nrated into product designs, these
purchase specifications or m g ^ g study

standards can have great and conventions are adopted

concluded that if U.S. wherever their technological superi-

in these international stan ar ^ nietric-that is. of

ority merits their acceptance. jn the demands of the inter-

harmonizing national industna practice ^ ,ne

national marketplace-wiH fall few international stan-

United States. For today there are s not by any

dards. and metric countries use g^nventions. The United States

means use the same sizes, s^ap ^ gntive in the Inter-

cannot hope to persuade the m customary measurement

national Standards ^ g determination to participate

language. But we can expec ^ nietric language

fully in international negotia '° ,jg U.S. domestic use m the future

standards for worldwide use < ,.,niie best protec -

-would remove a significant Asian powers success-

ing U.S. commercial -gctices through their own mter-

fully harmonize their industrial P participation by U.S^

national metric --ards. ^

sTandrrds'murh'more ^""g'^etPccountries still have divergent

,n summary, it is now. ecd

standards and practices, tha ^ penefical. However

development of metric stan costly m the .umre.

rnctiv the changeover now. .,^5

Keystone

How conversion would work

How should a 10-year program of conversion be carried out? Secretary
of Commerce Stans recommended that while the changeover should
be substantially voluntary, it should be accomplished through a co-
ordinated national program. The Congress could establish a suitable
central coordinating body to guide the changeover. This organization
would be responsible to all sectors of the U.S. society, and would facili-
tate the generation of detailed plans and timetables. After these plans
have been made, under which some sectors might change in only a
few years and others might take 20 years or more. Congress would
establish a date ten years later by which time the United States would
be predominantly, though not exclusively, metric.

Two tasks would need to be undertaken immediately and pressed
with some vigor. First, as soon as a new cycle of school textbooks v/as
ready for introduction all public school children would begin to gain
a practical mastery of the basic metric dimensions, areas, volumes,
weights, and temperature scales. This effort, strongly supported by the
major national organizations representing teachers, would be needed
to prepare the six-year-olds starting school that year for life in the
metric world of the 21st century.

Second, the task of generating new metric language standards for
domestic U.S. use, and hopefully for international adoption, would
have to begin quickly because conversion of our economy to metric
practice would not be possible until the standards exist. This job (like
most of the tasks in metric conversion) will fall primarily on the private
sector, working through the many voluntary standards-generating
bodies in the United States. The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), which arranges for U.S. representation in international stan-
dards organizations, would be expected to play a major role in co-
ordinating this effort.

In the process of generating new metric standards, some improve-
ments might be made that could provide substantial savings to the
economy once conversion was accomplished. An example is in the
area of thread sizes on nuts and bolts. A study by the Industrial Fasten-
ers Institute suggests that the present 59 varieties of U.S. customary
thread diameter-pitch combinations, plus the 57 metric sizes in com-
mon use in Europe, might be replaced by 25 new metric sizes that
could do the job of all 116 old sizes. Substantial inventory savings and
design simplifications might result. The British found this aspect of
"metrication" — housecleaning of their industrial standards— a major
opportunity for productivity improvement.

The standardization of common plumbing will serve to illustrate
another area in which savings might result. The present common pipe
standards date back to the 1880s and the wall thicknesses reflect the
state of metallurgy at that time. Since American pipes are standardized
on their inside dimensions, while European pipes are standardized by
their outside dimensions, the rationalization and harmonization of
pipe standards internationally might provide the opportunity to reduce

150

temperature Kelvin-K

water boils

373.15

body temperature

water freezes

i 310.15

‘r'273.V5'

100

V

f'T

212

i'..' ■!

•• 1 98.6
r ' ‘

I ^

m

s ‘ : ,*

i ry ;

Three scales on which temperature
is measured are the Kelvin, Celsius
or centigrade, and Fahrenheit.
Celsius is used in the metric system
and Fahrenheit in the United States.
On the Kelvin scale the unit
of measurement equals the Celsius
degree, each being 1/100 of the
interval between the freezing and
boiling points of water. Kelvin is
most often used in scientific work.
Another of Britain's conversion
posters is on the opposite page.

'.'it*

absolute zero .

i

r .t'. . :

■1^ -273.15

-459.67

Kelvin

•ihncit anv increase in hazard or
the pipe wall thickness to assume that U.S. pipe

failure rate. However, it ^ the event of a metric change-

standards would have to be cha g -one-quarter mch,

over simply because the J on a piece of one-half-mch

■•one-half inch.” etc. in "^asure o^
threaded pipe does the P'P" o, ,ess metal in P'-P" .

ings in this area thus der.ve < content of standard.

tion through modernization of the g conclusions of the U.S^

Following on British the costs of metric conversion

metric study. Stans recommended tha ^^^.^rnent sharing the

Te Where they fall." ; :onversion: special considerat.^

cost of its participation m the , ^he small businessman and

r;. h J ,0 « .o « .0

seU.employeO ar«s="- 151

Celsius

Fahrenheit

Origin of our present system of
measurement

The origin of American customary units of measurement is lost in
antiquity, for it evolved from ancient Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman
customs. But England, as a great maritime nation, was an early leader
in measurement standardization.. King Henry II standardized the yard,
and Elizabeth I the avoirdupois pound, both of which are very similar
to today's units. The volumetric units are more complicated, since the
United States adopted the British wine gallon, about 20% smaller than
the Imperial gallon adopted by the British in 1824. Furthermore, Ameri-
can colonists used a different measurement for liquid and dry volume
as a matter of convenience because of different types of containers
then in use. (John Quincy Adams thought this inconsistency would
cause the United States less trouble than other nations because "Wine
is an article of importation: an article of luxury; the exactness of the
measure by which it is distributed, is not an incident which every day
comes home to the interests and necessities of every individual.”)

In general, dimensional units of the customary system had an anthro-
pomorphic origin. Limbs of the body were used as conveniently avail-
able measurement gauges, the inch being the knuckle of the thumb
and the early yard being the distance from King Henry I's nose to the
end of his thumb when his arm was fully outstretched.

The metric system derives its anthropomorphic character from the
10 fingers on which many people learned to count. Thomas Jefferson
had early seen the advantages of a measurement system based on
decimal arithmetic, and proposed the use of a pendulum whose time
of swing and length would simultaneously define both length and time.

The metric system was born of the French Revolution, with pro-
visional standards issued in 1795. The definition of the unit of length.

costs of conversion rests on the fact that these costs are difficult to
identify and there are many opportunities to reduce them by careful
management at the company level. Americans will pay much less for
metric conversion as consumers and stockholders than they would
as taxpayers.

Even after the planning of timetables for a metric conversion, several
years would pass before metric labeled goods would predominate on
the grocer's shelves and "kilometers per hour" signs would adorn the
roads. It has been estimated that about three years would be required
to modify the dial-plates of scales used in retail trade. The changeover
of highway signs could be accomplished over several years by conceal-
ing metric speeds, distances, and load limits under removable labels
in miles per hour, miles, or tons. These two changes, which exemplify
encounters that the average citizen would have with metric language

152

, ,hp need to be very practical about
in his everyday life, also be advantageous from the

arranging the conversion. It pro gut a period

safety point of view to gW prove most helpful to the

of two or three years of ^oal abehng^^ ,,.3 bansi-

shopper who could gam famiHa y regulate the

fiona. phase, it could be ,,ou.d agree on a date after

weights and measures used 1 gckage labeling and retail mea-

which metric units must be m P ,g,g 33 any-

sures. Customary equivalents also

one desires. pressary for Congress to intrude on the

It probably would not be neces ry regulations in retail

states- authority to set ‘^--'fj^g^rnpertant that timing of a change
trade, even though it ,be states now coordinate their

to metric be uniform in all 50 smtes.

153

Ke>'stone

il

lirtni-

snetric

efforts through a National Conference of Weights and Measures, whose
technical recommendations for regulations are adopted by administra-
tive proceedings in most states. Thus, once the conference determined
a timetable for conversion, in collaboration with the national coordinat-
ing body, jt could seek the simultaneous implementation of this sched-
ule in all states. It is, therefore, unlikely that any new mandatory federal
authority would be needed to effect an orderly conversion program.

The purchasing power of the federal government would provide a
useful market demand for metric products and services in metric
language. However, the timing of the government's own actions v/ould
have to be dovetailed with timetables developed by the private sector
through participation of both sectors in the proposed national co-
ordinating body. Thus, government would not be expected to move
first to demand metric products but should set a good example by
adhering to the timetable agreed upon by all.

Reaping the benefits

At the end of the conversion period, the public would be accustomed
to metric language predominating in their shops, workplaces, and
newspapers. About 5% more milk would appear on the doorstep (the
margin by which the liter exceeds the quart), and a meter of cloth would
be three inches longer than the yard. But basically the change would
not be very noticeable. For many years to come horses, 1 6 hands high,
still would be competing over furlong measures, football fields would
remain 100 yards long, skeptics would say, "Give him an inch and he'll
take a mile."

Estimating the costs and benefits associated with going metric is
elusive. British experience indicates that while the planning is difficult
and time-consuming, most companies found the actual cost and com-
plexity of conversion easier than they feared it would be. Conversion
costs in general were found reasonable in relation to other uncer-
tainties in ordinary operating costs. Indeed, the "rule of reason" for
metric conversion suggests that this should be the case, for no sector
should be expected to convert on a timetable that would make the
costs unacceptable. Detailed cost surveys, conducted by over 100
companies that volunteered their data to the U.S. Metric Study, showed
wide variations from company to company in the same industry on
the cost impact of conversion. In extreme cases the estimated cost of
conversion provided by each of two companies engaged in the same
business differed by as much as 100 to I.Thus these data reflect a v/ide
variation in experience and perception of metric conversion by differ-
ent companies. Their problem in making the estimates v/as com-
pounded, of course, by the fact that the metric standards to which
their hypothetical conversion was directed do not in fact exist and had
to be imagined. Finally, those U.S. industries that have undertaken a
"pay as you go" conversion in recent years report that the process
was accomplished with relatively little confusion and that costs, in
general, were absorbed in ordinary operating expense.

154

LENGTH meler-m

iTieter bar

1 ,650, 763.73 v/avelenglhs

MASS kilogram-kg

kilogram of

plalinum-iridium

alloy

Common metric units are based
on specific physicat entities.

A meter (above) is 1 .650,763.73
wavelengths, in a vacuum,
of the orange-red tine in the spectrum
of krypton-SS. A kilogram (lell)
is the weight of a cylinder
of platinum-iridium alloy kept
by the International Bureau of V/eights
and Measures in Paris. The metric
unit of force, one newton (t N),
v/hen applied lor one second to one
kilogram will give it an acceleration
of one meter per second per second.
On the opposite page is another
British conversion poster.

LUMINOUS INTENSITY candela-cd

The metric candela (above) is 1/60
ol the luminous intensity of one
square centimeter of a biackbody
surface at the temperature of platinum
at Its solidification point (2,042° K).

A source having an intensity
ol one candela in all directions
radiates a light flux of about 12.5
lumens. By comparison a 100-watt
light bulb emits about 1,700 lumens.

One second (opposite page) is
the duration of 9,192,631 ,770 cycles
of the radiation associated
with a particular transition
of the cesium atom. A second can be
realized by tuning an oscillator
to the resonance frequency of cesium
atoms as they pass through magnets
and a resonant cavity into a detector.

Costs of hardware changes would be determined in large measure
by the extent to which the time scale for conversion is commensurate
with the normal life of the affected equipment. Machine tools could
in many cases be converted from inches to meters by a simple change
In the drive gears. Since the inch is internationally defined as 2.54
centimeters, a gear of 1 27 teeth can be used with a gear of, for example,
50 teeth to produce a metric tool.

On the benefits side, importers and exporters expressed the view
that measurement language was not a strong factor in determining the
course of international trade. Nonetheless, this survey revealed an
estimated net benefit to the U.S. balance of trade of about $600 million
a year. About one-fourth of the manufacturers surveyed estimated that
savings resulting from conversion would compensate for added costs
in a period of time comparable to the conversion process itself. In
addition, this survey identified an annual cost of maintaining dual
capability for the manufacture of standard parts and materials of about
$500 million a year, a cost that will be faced for as long as the United
States is making substantial use of both measurement systems. In
addition to this cost of "being dual,” manufacturers identified a fixed
cost of conversion that the study estimated as between $6.2 billion
and $14.3 billion for the 10-year period. The study concludes that no
matter what the cost of conversion, it would be less costly, and the
costs would be recouped sooner, if the nation changes to metric by
plan rather than by leaving the change to chance.

All of the analyses in the study were based on examination of today s
world. A more relevant question to answer is, "What measurement
language will Americans want to be using during the nation's third
century?" In view of the extraordinary changes that have swept over

156

TIME second-s

direction ot

transition

1 f — oscillating j I

i ' field i

deflecH- : y'

L. L-

deflecting magnet

from oscillator

, k-nuaM on by technology, what

the world in the last 50 Tec^'noiogy will continue to make

can we expect for the year 2°°^ ^ Advanced technology

the peoples of all nations more i economic life, and we will

will play an ever more sophisticated trading part-

find ourselves competing wi i technology, personal

ners. Barriers to the transfer of 9°°;^;33:;;f,;3dvIntageous for the
communication would become i future generations of Amen-

united States. In the light of the needs oHu u g ^

cans Who will live in . n,etric wo,

issue whioh has been loo long unresolved^

detector

ence Year in Review:
sective byJohnH.Lannan

Skyrocketing research costs, unmet human needs
in such areas as health and environment, and the
threatened loss of U.S. technological and industrial
preeminence combined to place science and tech-
nology high on the list of national concerns in
1972. This came about despite — or perhaps as a
result of— the "antitechnology" sentiment that had
gained momentum in recent years. Concerned by
what science and technology were doing to them
as well as for them, people had begun to take a
more critical look at both.

In part, at least, their concern stemmed from en-
vironmental considerations. That concern led,
among other things, to a conflict between the anti-
technology advocates in the developed nations and
the less developed countries, where the pursuit
of science remained the mark of societal sophisti-
cation and where the resulting technology was a
source of jobs and better lives. Nowhere was this
dichotomy more evident than at the first UN Con-
ference on the Human Environment, held in Stock-
holm in June 1972, where an impasse developed
between those who sought to protect the world’s
overall environment and those who felt the world
environment had little meaning in the face of
poverty and underdevelopment.

In the U.S. strong environmental and consumer
pressures brought demands for a "look before we
leap" approach to legislation and regulation.
Congress reaffirmed the broad regulatory powers
it had given to the Environmental Protection
Agency, intensified the ongoing attacks on disease,
poverty, and functional illiteracy, and took steps
toward the creation of an Office of Technology
Assessment, designed to evaluate new technolo-
gies before they are implemented.

On the executive side, the new emphasis meant
additional attention to and direction for the sci-
entific and technological enterprise. Early in 1972
the administration put before Congress the largest
science and technology budget ever proposed —
$17.8 billion. Significantly, the budget emphasized
the civilian or domestic side of the economy as
opposed to the military, space, and atomic energy
efforts that had long commanded the lion’s share
of the federal government’s research and develop-
ment funds. Energy research, health care, trans-
portation, education, and the effects of pollutants
on health were among the areas designated for
significant increases.

The first presidential message on science and
technology, promulgated in March, called for
broader-based support of fundamental research
by government, the channeling of scientific and
technological capacity to meet existing needs, and
the expansion of international cooperation.

By midyear a search for ways to support basic
research was under way throughout the federal
establishment. With added funding in sight and a
presidential directive calling for new applications
of science and technology, the government — which
supports more than half the nation’s research and
development— began moving toward new goals. ^

On the international front. Pres. Richard Nixon s
diplomatic initiatives had important implications
for science and technology. The beginnings of
political and cultural rapprochement between the
U.S. and China opened the way for exchange visits
between scientists and physicians of the two coun-
tries. On the other side of the world, the series of
landmark agreements signed during the president s
official visit to the Soviet Union had striking science
and technology components.

Of these, the strategic arms limitation agreement
—itself made possible by scientific and techno-
logical developments stemming from space, gso-
physical, electromagnetic, and oceanograp ic
research — won the widest public attention, u
agreements on space, environment, health, an
science and technology all called for joint
or cooperation in areas where both countries wou
benefit. Significantly, the agreements provided for

cooperation on a government-to-government basis.

Previously, cooperative arrangements had been
made between individuals or institutions throug
the two governments’ foreign offices. Furthermor ,
the new agreements would be monitored no
diplomats and politicians but by joint cornmissions
of industrialists, scientists, technologists, an
concerned government agencies.

While the highlights of the year were in the policy
area, scientific and technological details were no
lacking. The new 200-GeV accelerator near Batavi^
111., came on line and reached its designed bea
power and intensity. The Apollo program, begu
as a cold war initiative, approached its conclusion
with a series of scientific triumphs. By way o a
ginnings, the construction of a nev/ ground-base
radio-astronomy facility, a Y-shaped interferome
with 13-mi arms, v/as authorized by Congress.

158

Cositents

160 Agriculture
163 Archaeology

166 Architecture and building engineering

171 Astronautics and space exploration

171 Earth satellites

175 Manned space exploration

179 Space probes

184 Astronomy

189 Atmospheric sciences

193 Behavioral sciences

193 Anthropology

196 Psychology

199 Botany

203 Chemistry

203 Applied chemistry

206 Chemical dynamics

208 Chemical synthesis

211 Structural chemistry

214 Communications

218 Computers

222 Earth sciences

222 Geology and geochemistry

225 Geophysics

229 Hydrology

231 Electronics

234 Environmental sciences

240 Foods and nutrition

244 Fuel and power

251 Honors ,t,„r,ir,nv

258 Information science and tec

260 Marine sciences

264 Mathematics

266 Medicine

266 General medicine

275 Alcoholism

279 Death and dying

282 Dentistry

283 Paramedical personnel
287 Psychiatry

290 Venereal disease
293 Microbiology
297 Molecular biology
297 Biochemistry
300 Biophysics
304 Genetics
307 Obituaries
311 Photography
313 Physics

313 High-energy physics
316 Nuclear physics
319 Science. General
329 Transportation
336 Veterinary medicine
338 Zoology

Fo^ rnore than a century, research pursued by
.gi-:cultural scientists has been instrumental in
rr.aKing United States agriculture the most produc-
t ve m the world. Two of the more outstanding re-
-^earch accomplishments of recent months have
far-reaching implications in man's search for clues
to the causes of human diseases.

Early in 1972, scientists announced that they had
isolated a tiny disease-producing particle called
a viroid. This discovery opened new paths for re-
search into diseases whose causes have eluded
scientists. The viroid is an infectious particle that
causes potato spindle tuber disease. Smaller than
any known virus, the viroid is a fragment of ribo-
nucleic acid (RNA) with a molecular weight of only
approximately 50,000. The smallest known virus
is 80 times larger than a viroid. The infectious
capabilities of viroids may give scientists new clues
to the cause of some human cancers, infectious
hepatitis, multiple sclerosis, scrapie of sheep, and
other diseases.

A second major scientific breakthrough was the
development of the first vaccine found to be effec-
tive against a naturally occurring cancer. The

vaccine is used in the prevention of Marek’s dis-
ease, which occurs widely in chicken flocks
throughout the world. A highly infectious form of
avian leukosis, it has caused losses of an estimated
$200 million annually to the U.S. poultry industry.
The vaccine proved to be a safe and effective way
to control this disease, and its discovery was con-
sidered to be among the most important in current
cancer research.

Pest and weed control. Because recent research
has revealed potential dangers in the use of some
pesticides, scientists from the Agricultural Re-
search Service (ARS) of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture have pioneered the reduction of pesti-
cide use by developing other methods of pest
control. Sex attractants may play a more prominent
role in future pest management programs than
they have in the past. Attention in 1972 was being
directed toward their possible use as a direct con-
trol rather than as a detection tool. Scientists be-
lieved that the attractants might be released in
sufficient quantity so that the environment of
insect pests would be permeated sufficiently to
disorient males in their efforts to find females.

A newly identified sex attractant for houseflies,
called muscalure, may reduce the amount of in-

Romaine lettuce damaged by air pollutants (left) and ozone damage to a leal of corn
(right) dramatically illustrate a problem laced by thousands of U.S. farmers. The Council
on Environmental Quality estimated the annual loss to crops and livestock at $500 million.

Agriculture

secticide needed if it can efficiently
a small, selected area treated with insecticide. This
would eliminate spraying large areas, which o ten
involves a heavy application of insecticide. Scie
lists also developed a strain of houseflies tha
nroduces only male offspring. This could help
S!ne the procedures used in sterilization
programs for insect control. Sterilization has been
Lccessfully employed against severa o

flies but not houseflies. In recent months howeve
preliminary tests showed that this
be employed in some control programs against

this carrier of human diseases. f

orams involve rearing insects m a laoorato y.
sterilizing the males, and releasing them m quan
tities sufficient to significantly outnumber
males: as a result, almost
between normal females and sterilized ^^les^

ARS scientists were examining w y -tlLk

nematodes-tlny parasitic
the bark beetle that carries Dutch elm d s t

„aa ,0 trea.

sterilize effectively or at least s

the beetles. . „ f,,i|.scale

For the first time, the launching

biological attack against the ce ^ other

sartoCs ihraa. to tPe "« most

small grams-appaarea .P°f ‘“', 0 , was lha

promising tachnigpalprbto 9 al

importation, rearing, and i.c native habitat,

become parasites on the rear-

In this technique f •_ heavily infested

ing of insects-are established

grain fields located in wi -,|oicie drift will

Lred from Production, where pest cidej
not be a hazard to newly hatched p ^ e

1971 the ARS and cooperating the

than 800,000 parasites m ^°^ '° jtes were freed
U.S., and nearly 100,000 larval parasi^s
at 11 sites in Indiana, Michigan, Ohio,

I, c. I dic. ppp^ppp-* ‘"jrS'ioT,;

bling insect eggs wa® .^ 1^1 proclatory

large numbers of aphid ''oo®- ,grva of the

insect. The aphid lion, w eats manykinds

green lacewing (^^^rysopa car . often

of crop insects and 99^'^ tjudworms on

attacks bollworms and rpcigtant to several

cotton plants. In addition, i ^ jp jpte-

insecticides, a factor * ^ which a minimum
grated control— a concep . , g^jce the num-
amount of insecticide is apP . .^g of large num-
ber of pests, followed bV.*';'® ^'ease
bers of aphid lions to gp^iggl control were

Scientists gs a better method to

using foam experimen y gj^gnce of cnviron-
control the corn borer. •

mental pollution. A nozzle was designed and buiU
to generate foam formulations of (1) DDT (used
only as the best available standard
or (2) Bacillus thuringiensis. a bacterium P
duces protein crystals toxic to some insects, m-
duding the corn borer. Each of the two '.'^secticides
wS combined in a nozzle with water, liquid foam-
ino aqent. and air and then forced through a mesh^ed
. I XU/-k kfrtliimp nf foam and its consistency

cPn.roll.d b, me emoun.s of meecPo^
foaming agent, and air that were used, n
R thurinpiensis demonstrated potential for reduc
f„g' pSon b, replacing po.emiall, baaardobs

"’S'conlrol la alao easenlial II man anlma^

^ arp to survive. Scientists discovered

ELi’™nTnfbercSefd"l,»fand‘p«^^^^^^^^

EriibrSei-rgeri^orw^irmS

^Thr'discovery of an additive that enhances the

''S£SClca?^Sd%t=^^

dde rates per application. Phenylcarbamate herbi^-

and repeaieo ^PP research has shown

fhTt certain j;®\'?y.|52^wSn ^ppTied alo^wi^^^^

live action ot tne so „ . --:i c„ctems ARS scien-
Ing wilh pure cb f p^nyf rnemylcarbamato
IpMC) aCgly inbiblled me biodegradarion ol

KUidea PXr r-et'SSri agr,-
Treating "Source rather than as

‘""''ecelsS evil may hasten the recycling of those
a necessary evu y ripanse the environ-

maierlala as cne ''W “ pVrn vras.ea lo

ment. ^ j then blended them

increase d 9 st b ^^y research

demStrTted that barn was^e rations do have

po.enlialas.lor.geaubat.na

^runn wS criieS renevrld In, eras, in waya
polluting %rater c ea g^i^Ptists ,ound that

of suppressing ; i^g added to anhy-

small Helped to insure against

7o°sfbrrrate pollution of groundwater, f/a.n-

Courtesy, Dr. Uheng Khoo and Dr. F. L. Bofcer, U.S. Department of Agriculture

Normal corn endosperm with starch removed (left) consists of matrix proteins and zein which is deficient
in the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan; center, endosperm after dissoiution of zein. Removai
of starch from high-lysine “opaque-2" strain (right), which lacks zein, leaves principally the amino
acid-rich matrix protein giutelin.

taining fertilizer nitrogen in the ammonium form
with such nitrification inhibitors would not only
restrict loss through leaching and runoff but also
keep applied nitrogen available to plants for a
longer time.

Finding more efficient uses of materials that man
cannot eat and that may pose potential pollution
problems is another way to aid in cleaning up the
environment. Scientists found a unique solution to
a part of this problem by feeding old newspapers
mixed with molasses to ruminant farm animals.
Replacing some forage in the feed ration with
newsprint had no adverse effects on the animals,
and research showed that newsprint could substi-
tute for at least 8% of the feed ration roughage.

Animal and plant science. Although there was
considerable emphasis in the past year on environ-
mental studies, research in animal and plant
science continued to make important advances. A
major breakthrough in the freezing of boar semen
promised to bring the full benefits of artificial in-
semination to the swine industry. Researchers
credited the success to their development of a new
additive and a special procedure for handling the
semen before it is frozen. The use of this new pro-
cedure in conjunction with artificial insemination
was expected to increase the rate at which geneti-
cally superior sires can be used to produce pigs
with more lean meat and less fat.

Corn genes with extra food potential were re-
covered in studies of a primitive South American
corn. Scientists discovered that the aleurone, the
site of B vitamins and high-quality protein just
under the kernel hull, is two to five cells thicker in

primitive Coroico corn than in U.S. commercial
hybrids. Coroico may serve as parent stock to
improve the nutritional value of U.S. hybrids.

A new biochemical technique, called mitochon-
drial complementation, or MC, promised to shorten
the time required for the development of improved
crop varieties and hybrids. The technique permitted
plant breeders to evaluate the production potential
of crosses between proposed parent plants in the
laboratory. It would be used to screen out crosses
that would produce less vigorous offspring; only
plants showing a high performance potential when
tested biochemically would need to be crossed
and field tested.

Future outlook. A hybrid sunflower that couio
become an important cash crop in the southern
U.S. and a replacement for flax in the North was
one of the hoped-for results of future researc
The outlook for sunflower research was bright be-
cause scientists found the missing ingredient or
breeding hybrid sunflowers. Called the restorer
gene, it restores fertility to male-sterile plants an
makes possible the breeding of hybrid sunflowers
of consistent high quality with good yield.

Three experimental compounds offered promts
as replacements for DDT and dieldriri as mo
proofing agents. Because of their chemical
they were expected to be much less persistent a
either DDT or dieldrin in the discarded solutions^

A highly toxic substance that may occur as
contaminant in a few pesticides synthesized ro
chlorophenols was under intensive study to lear
its chemical and environmental significance. ®

contaminant, 2,4,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxm

162

Archaeology

(TCDD), causes chloracne, a condit, on charac-
terized by skin eruptions and irritations o. .ne ace.
arms, and shoulders. TCDD is an
sideration in the recent review of uses of

cide 2,4, 5-T. _Robert B Rathdone

See a/so Feature Article: NUTRITION AND THE
AMERICAN DIET.

Archaeology

During the year, archaeologists
ingly concerned with the destruction of a^c

logical sites caused t^ada also

national market in antiquities. probfem

served to exacerbate the growing ^ 3

of arranging for aopeared tc have

although this latter phenomenon appez .
ns , 001 s io rising «t,no=on,,lsm nat.ona.
and resistance to the idea of 9 region,

unraveling the ancient ° arranae-

This, in turn, was leading to ^ . -g^ations.

ments for international cooper developed

more training of outlook on

countries, and a somewhat
archaeological objectives.

Africa. The search for f^^n oMhe

genitors in Africa continued_ ry^ Cambridge.

Museum of Comparative Z QV (pv/er jaw
Mass., announced the ^,°;;%ears

with one molar in place, dated at 5-5 miliio^ y^^^_

ago. The specimen was fo^^d 'h P
agam Hill in northern X^yP had

announced until J .. ® gating of the jaw

established its date and 'd® yj. not only by
in the Pliocene period "'PP ^^ugh correlation
radioactive techniques from other regions.

with animal bones of known ag a

Patterson concluded that a

creature closely related ^ .^as first reported

hominid ancestral to man, ' Previously the

from South Africa many ypp"'® been 3.5 mil-

oldest date for Aostra/op/thecus had^bee^^ ^ ^

lion to 4 million years 39°, remains fills part

million-year-old . .^een Ramapithecus. a

of the evolutionary gap b „pars ago, and the

d„ed ,0 » ""rjs.™ a gaasdon a,
first of the hommids. ^ ,ne upright pos-

lo when earlier forms deve fiustralopUt^^^^^^
ture and ground-living habit of Ausr

and the later hominids. „ grt style, \vhich
The history of the 'p|^® .,r, pronze sculptures

reached its apogee m ‘3° ° ^ excavations at

of Nigeria, was being 3'°^^ ° 3/3 ago extraord.-
Owo. 70 mi N of Benin. Som ye ,0

nary sculptured heads found at

the 9th centuy a.d.. indicating that the Benin
bronze art had its roots in an ancient Afr'ca" ^Pd'^
tion not in contacts with Europeans in the 16th
ceniury as was once supposed. E^aho^
Owo were begun by Ekpo Eyo in 1971 after frag
m-=>nts of terra-cotta sculpture in the Ife style were
found there by a surveyor. The site turned out to be
a former sacred grave used in the worship of

'°A tgfamount of sculptured material was found
and although detailed studies had yet to P® anade
ft was c^ar that the older Ife art tradition did no
iHut if Owo before at least the 15th century. It

E!=Sr“S=

ancient Saratano reie bv James Pritchard

of identifying a s citv ever found on

mouth was unearth analyzed, will shed new

s,r,rrr7»:-"-<-

Archaeology

alphabet lo tt,e A'est, are best known from their
colonies, suer- ar Carthage.

The late Mincan site on the island of Santorini
(Thera), t'eiiv, excavated by Spyridon Marinates,
confir.uen lO neke world news, probably because
It is theoretically connected with the lost continent
of Atlantis The most significant discovery during
‘he year concerned frescoes pieced together from
fragments of wall paintings in buildings buried
during the volcanic explosion that destroyed the
Minoan town. They were described as the finest
frescoes ever discovered in the Mediterranean
region, more delicate, free, and rhythmical than
the famous frescoes of Knossos on Crete.

Europe. Some clue to the facial appearance of
men who lived in Europe 200,000 years ago was
unearthed during the year in France. This is a
period, preceding the age of Neanderthal man (the
popular stereotype of the caveman), that had been
known primarily from deposits of primitive flint
tools. In July 1971, Henry de Lumley and his wife,

"Fresco of the Princes" is one of the waff paintings
painstakingly reassembled from fragments discovered
at the late Minoan site Akrotiri on the island of Thera
and installed in the National Museum in Athens.

Dmitri Kessel

from the University of Ais-Marseilles, found a
largely intact skull with massive teeth in a cave
above the village of Tautavel near Perpignan. Pre-
viously, two jawbones had been found in the same
deposit, but neither of them fit the skull. One jaw is
that of a man and the other of a woman. The skull
is believed to be that of a youth about 20.

The new discovery shows extreme prognathism
(snout-like, with jaws protruding far in front of the
upper face) and unusually thick jawbones, both
characteristics of ancient hominids. The skull is
described as 'Tantern-jawed” and lacking the chin
knob characteristic of modern man. There are
sharp structural differences between the male
and female jaws.

The cave contains 1 5 ft of deposit and 20 distinct
habitation levels, each laid down during the period
of the skull. More than 100,000 pieces of worked
stone were found. There were also many bones of
rhinoceroses, horses, bears, panthers, elephants,
turtles, deer, a big archaic cow, wolves, rabbits,
and birds. Broken bones indicate that these ani-
mals were eaten. The discovery fills in some of the
huge time gap between Pithecanthropus (400,000-
500,000 years ago) and Neanderthal (90,000 years
ago), and suggests that many other links in the
chain of hominid evolution will be found. The dis-
coverers were inclined to believe the skull Is evi-
dence that Neanderthal man developed Indepen-
dently of his contemporaries in Africa and Asia.

Archaeologists and historians have often raised
the question of what motivated the Greeks to
colonize southern Italy and Sicily in the 8th century
B.c. At least a partial answer emerged from recent
discoveries at a new archaic Greek site on the is-
land of Ischia in the Bay of Naples. The buildings
at the new site are not simply private dwellings but
the remains of a metalworking center. Large and
small chunks of raw iron "bloom,” fragments of
broken implements, and nodules of vitreous slag
occur in great abundance. The buildings them-
selves appear to be designed as metalworking
shops. Bronze as well as Iron was worked in these
shops. Pieces of bronze sheets and wire, lumps of
lead, a bronze ingot, and a miscast bronze fibula
all attest to the manufacture of metal objects.

There are no ore deposits on the island of Ischi^
and the obvious sources of the raw materials found
there are the island of Elba and the Etruscan mines
in central Italy, near Populonia. Diodorus ofSiciy,
writing at a later date, describes such a commerce
in iron ore, which was carried to emporia, then
fashioned into implements and exported through-
out much of the known world. Strabo tells us it was
men of the Euboean aristocracy who led the Gree
colonists westward. It now appears that meta
manufacture and trade played a basic role in the

Archaeology

Th. InsMu.e c! ArchaeologT^elAv^^|n^^

■ , /rii {. > ' 1 \ V

first colonization. Work at an^Jeffrey

under the direction of G'org.o Buchne rand^Je ^^y
Klein for the Italian Antiquities Serv c-
University Museum. Olmec country of

Mexico. In January 1939. in Smith-

eastern Mexico. Matthew Stirling , ascribed

sonian Institution found a frag Mayan

stone monument recording a date -n ^ V
calendrical system. g-nn. g cj^cje^nu

(Baktun) was missing, but St'rl'f’S P upown re-
would be a seven, making it the
corded date in America. the year .an ^

fragment, recently discovere Veracruz,

jail cell in the village of and Michael

was reported by Francisco gjjding's original
Coe to be a matching piec niber is indeed

discovery. The beginning cy . .gnttoSI sc.in
Baktun 7. confirming a date equivalent to .11

our own calendar. because it

The discovery is significant notjj^^^

is the earliest recorded d Olmecs.

cause it helps to confirm a ® particular

,a,he, man m. '"'J “ Jo”"

calendrical system. The found at Tikal in

date in the Maya a;cbaeological evi-

Guatemala. is a.d. 292. U parliest civiliza-

dence also points to Olmec as theearl.es

tion in America. Gratified archaeological

North America. Deep, stra e o,

sites, normal in the Near ..puiernent are often
thousands of years of hnma North America,

found at a single site, are r p- gr valley.

Al mo Kootor sue in me “'“'“.“..iocl down lo
however, excavations ^ ^3,ed at 4200 b.c.;

18 ft and to an occupation le ,3^5,5

tesling indicated that t .. .^bon method to
met snoold dote oy "i' '““'“."“keole is me

about 5000 B.C. ° I horizons, or occupa-

fact that the she's 12 cult ' of

tion periods, are neatly sew

Assynan-Babylonian cylinder
seal ol provincial workmanship
was recovered at the Tel
Beer-sheba site in Israel by an
expedition directed by Yohanan
Aharoni ol Tel Aviv University
The sanctuary ol ancient
Beer-sheba. a lortilied city
which divided the land ol Israel
and Egypt, yielded a rich lind ol
cult obiects. all ol pagan origin
showing strong Egyptian
inlluences Further excavation
was expected to shed
more light on questions ol early
Israelite history and religion

etenieeoiiwesnedin^duringperiods^w^^^^^^

was ..,5 and ottief human and animal

S.°s senlod .opeatediy o.er a period o. aPout

^^Btruever of Northwestern University began
Stuart Struev located

excavations at t P P tributary to the

on a slope in an^old sheam^^^

fr.i" h'cmaonJ™- rolar,"Sion wS

in dtii ♦Kr* Hirprtion ot James J*

archaeologists jhe village of Namu

Hester discovered t occupation

in F.tz Hugh Sound whe ,^3^3, 70OO-

-as poin? about this occupa-

8000 B.c. " 9""” ,he material seems to have
tion lies in the fact motprial in the interior of

noeonneulionwimomer materml m ^

Sis, jrpmmn“ on, on Podape,

ran da,.s d-S—

These known horizon in the

Alaska faarke ,hey fell far short of the

northern regions, thougji^t^j^.^^^ settlement of

period assumed^ interesting aspect of

rSS -s'the indication that the artifacts

Tr.e U"-ve's'ry ,V.useL"n. Un\*ers'ty cf Feinsi-ivcnia

Ancient Creek vessel decorated with an uncomplicated
gecmetric motif was discovered at the t.lezzavia site
on the island of Ischia. Other finds indicate that
ine site was a commercial metalworking center.

reflect a coastal type of culture. This may have a
bearing upon the theory that man first moved into
North America along the sea front of what was
once a land bridge in the Bering Sea area.

T echniques. The development of remote sensing
devices in aircraft has greatly enlarged the scale of
archaeological reconnaissance, and it was ex-
pected that further discoveries Viiould result from
experiments carried out by Earth Resources Tech-
nology Satellites. As an example of the technique,
features that look like very straight roadways were
traced nearly 15 mi in a northerly direction from
Pueblo Alto in Chaco Canyon, New F/exico. Remote
sensing from aircraft located a network of five of
these so-called roads converging on masonry walls
just east of the pueblo. They were first thought to be
elements of a water system, but this v/as disproved
by further study, and their nature remains a puzzle.

The discrepancy behveen radiocarbon (’■*C)
dates and certain astronomically fixed dates in the
Egyptian calendar was first noted several years
ago. Subsequently, comparison of the tree rings
of 4,000-year-old bristlecone pine trees in the
American Southwest, which could also be radio-
carbon dated, indicated that ’^C dates prior to
about 1000 B.c. are too young by several centuries.
(See 1971 Britannica Yearbook of Science and the
Future. Feature Article: DATING THE PAST.) The
MASCA Laboratory at the University Museum.
Philadelphia, and the’-C laboratory at the Uni-
versity of California in San Diego have both pub-
lished systematic correction factors applicable to
dates older than 1000 b.c.

Several papers published during the year by

165

Colin Renfrew pointed out that European pre-
history is being revolutionized by the corrected
’“’C dates for Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in
Europe and the Near East. For many years it has
been generally agreed that major cultural advances
in ancient Europe were derived from the Near EasL
With corrected dates, however, megalithic tombs
in Western Europe and copper metallurgy in the
Balkans proved to be older than their presumed
prototypes in the eastern F'/editerranean region.

One difficulty that emerged in the Renfrev/
papers involved the reliability of archaeoIogicaJ
dates from Egypt and the Near East. A few of those
dates, which can be correlated with actual astro-
nomical phenomena, are certain, but the entire
chronology built up from inscriptions recording
the reigns of kings and other events is not so re-
liable. It may well be that much of the accepted
Near Eastern archaeological chronology may ne=d
correction. In any case, radiocarbon dates around
the world were being changed, and the effert on
theories of diffusion, centers of origin, and time-
relations of human events in different regions v/as
sure to be significant.

The contributions of archaeology to the eeith
sciences were first noted when radiocarbon dadnO
stations began to observe the increase of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from the burn-
ing of fossil fuels and the rapid dispersal in ih=
earth’s atmosphere of the fallout from nuc!==r
tests. During the past year another example czrr.e
to light. Radiocarbon dates for charcoal from
aboriginal fireplaces at Lake J/ungo in Nev.' Souih
Wales, Austr., provide a record of a brief reverse
of the earth’s geomagnetic field about 30,003 y=iFrs
ago. The event apparently encompassed no more
than 2,500 years. Additional evidence for such
controversial events in the earth’s hisioty '*£^5
also coming from Czechoslovakia and F/exico.

— Froelich Rainey

Architecture and
building engineering

The great sky'seraper race, abruptly
with the completion of the Empire State Bui! -we
in 1931 and not resumed until the 19S0s. continu=-
to accelerate in 1972. As it did so. a
architectural concept, tubular design, establi; c-.
itself. _ .

A new generation of skyscrapers, iheinvenu^^'
of architect-engineer Fazlur Khan, of
Owings & F/errhl of Chicago, tubular design was
only eight years old. but it had been used
of the world's five tallest buildings, lufaularces s'

permits economical construction because^ w.th 't
the building’s perimeter columns resist ' '

ISce of pressore, enmina.iog
expensive internal bracing ,e,n-

Khan introduced the concept in p' He

Lced-concrete apartment house
then applied it t°f e Resign oUwo

structures, the 1,105 f ( \ ■i42-m)

John Hancock Center and Jhe 1,450 >

Sears Tower, under construe -on as th. r ^ -
ant of the title of world s tallest, 'he u ^

cept was also used by other designers for^^n-

ft(411-m) towers ^'(345 ^r,) ^rv.dard

York City, and for the 1.136-n (

Oil Co. of Indiana Building in Chicago

On the Hancock project, ^ J ,^^jss

visually marked by diamond-like diagc _
bracing on the building’s exterior g.' >0
thing of the appearance of a bridge .
end. The unique design high-rise

ansv/ered the problem of co 'flexibility of

interior space required to accorr
office and residential use.

Follov/ing the Hancock, .... Houston,

idea for the One Shell Plaza Bu ,^33 52

Tex., a reinforced-concrete to 2„.concrete

stories, setting a new rec -gHed "tube-in-
structures. In it Khan used w rounding the

tube": the inner TJ^poSed the interior

service core of the building, P perimeter

dead loadings, v/hile ‘be.clos Y SP Relieved

columns resisted wnd ' ^,gher by the

that concrete could be earn 11 0-story con-

tubular system and erivision ,.,^g that

Crete tower with '^^ss-cros ^ Chicago in

of the Hancock. Under hotel-office-

1972 was a 63-sto^ concrete using

commercial-residential ui modification of his
tubular design. In and-concrete penm-

basic design, Khan “sed a steel

eter columns to take th a, three new

interior frame for the floo J Houston, a

buildings, a 24-story 01 a 50-story tov/er

36-story structure m Chicag .

in New Orleans. La. combined the tube

On the Sears Tower, ^ba continuous

design with a plan, form the tower

steel modules, ®^‘^b q jhe north-

from the street to the 50 n remain-

west and southeast mo up through the next

ing seven modules continuing modules

16 floors. The northeas . others do so at

drop off at the 66th create the 20-

the 90th. The final two co ^ ^ (442-m).

story upper tower 5®, fen the interior of the

Common interior colu

Architecture and building engineering

modular skeleton. The " af can^be

column-free squares on every “oor that can be

g».ng . sinking sx.e-ior appsar.ocp ol

rrmS P pa doS With an places. TPIS con.

'S:“n%'.nss-n.-i-S^^

f I Ld Co reguired 3.7 million sq It ol cilice

pms^ .Tna plaza ina Puilding pad IP tisa

110 floors. square block on the v/est

rs^oTiis " :rr3S

of earth kandhardpan.Thehardpan

caissons set on bed lov/er levels

caissons were to soPPon M Plasa s™

tpa bonding. each Interior

-“--V°?rdo--atrk'c"Sot

:re SorV TwoJ0.IPdmmmm

'rneToTnai". P IPS

nse the full heign ^ S-ft-thick mat that

lowest basement c ,ga

transfers the vertical loadings.

bedrock: »be caissons take on y ^

The world’s J f ’.“ed to install the

500,000-ft-lb torque, were useo

,hp Sears site consisted of two small
Originally the Se ^g^row street. Khan and

city blocks separ glim tov/ers with a

his colleagues CO ^ modern version

crossing over the s re . landmark of

o, tpo «"9''7j;;"”°co„sS a Single Poild.

'"“wim mJ slrest ronning IP'»”9" !'• ™“'‘‘

mg%/.ththe st impossible,

have made use problem by pur-

chasing 'b® ® developed. Under the street

problem \ >7 b protected as

;SraT "ocmed. It was moved under the plaza
j,; given 47 hardpan caissons for support.

167

lecture and building engineering

■d'er new Chicago giant, the Standard Oil
j K-,. rising on the south bank of the Chicago
' c.ose to the lakefront, used the tubular de-

'O eliminate interior wind bracing. The work
' -.0 architectural firms, Edward Durell Stone and

-ssociates of New York and Perkins & Will of
Chicago, the building uses a time-saving fabrica-
tion and erection system devised by Perkins & Will
vice-president E. Alfred Picardi. Folded-plate
perimeter columns in the shape of V’s and pressed-
plate spandrels (exterior panels) were shop-
fabricated, eliminating welding at the site. The
folded-plate columns were mass-fabricated in
three-story sections by automatic cutting and
welding techniques and simply bolted in place
during erection. The column-spandrel units gave
the building a unique appearance during con-
struction, that of a rising forest of crosses.

As in other tubular designs, the core columns of
the Standard Oil tower helped take the floor load-
ings while the perimeter columns handled the
v/ind bracing. The floors act as diaphragms to
transfer lateral wind load to the V-shaped columns.
The floor trusses, all identical, were also mass-
produced. The building had no setbacks. The
foundation pad was supported by 56 caissons ex-
tending too ft to bedrock. The columns were
mounted on an “egg crate" concrete grid whose
ribs connected the tops of the caissons. Five
subplaza floors had reinforced-concrete load-
bearing walls and interior columns bearing on
caissons in hardpan.

A notable innovation of the building's construc-
tion was the use, at the initiative of Standard Oil,
of a computerized system of cost-estimating and
control developed by the company for use in
tanker design and in oil and mineral exploration.
The basis of the system is the Monte Carlo simula-
tion technique, which calls for an input of the
expected, lowest, and maximum costs of each
item. The computer then generates a series of
random numbers that are transformed into either
the lowest, the highest, or the expected cost of
each item, and adds them to arrive at the total cost
of a hypothetical project. By repeating the process
a thousand times, a realistic low, high, and ex-
pected cost figure is reached.

Perkins & Will later developed a second, similar
program of its own, in conjunction with Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, and was applying
it on other projects. "The traditional cost estimate
of a building,” said Picardi, "has had at best a
contingency factor having no really good relation
to the numerous variables and conditions that in-
fluence the final cost." The Monte Carlo system
gave a highly reliable set of estimates (provided
of course that the data was sound) and helped alert
168

designers and builders to trouble spots. Picardi
pointed out that “this is not a cost-cutting tech-
nique; it is a cost-control technique, telling us
more accurately what our costs are."

A cost not anticipated by the computer in the
Standard Oil and other buildings of the new gen-
eration of skyscrapers may be that of solving the
television ghost problem. Completion of the World
Trade Center in New York brought ghosts (double
images) to thousands of TV screens because some
of the signals from the antennas atop the Empire
State Building were reflected off the nev/ twin
towers and so arrived at New Yorkers' sets a split
second late. The phenomenon was repeated in
Chicago as the Sears and Standard Oil buildings
began to rise in the paths of signals sent out from
the John Hancock Center and Marina City anten-
nas. Many other cities, both in the U.S. and abroad,
were similarly threatened. Relocating transmitting
antennas is expensive, and other solutions, such
as using signal-absorbing construction materials,
were under study. The maturing of cable television
(CATV) appeared to be an ultimate solution.

The new skyscraper competition showed signs
of stretching across the Atlantic to Europe, where
it originated with Alexandre Eiffel's airy 984-ft
(300-m) tower built in 1889 for the centennial of
the French Revolution and ever since the major
landmark of Paris. The tallest building in the world
until the Empire State and Chrysler buildings
surpassed it in the early 1930s, the Eiffel Tower re-
mained by far the tallest structure in Europe. The
1970s might see it eclipsed, however. A 600-ft
(185-m) conventional office building was begun in
London in 1972 to house the Westminster Barik.
It was a product of Britain's most controversial
architect-engineer, Richard Seifert, who was
accused of putting commercial considerations
ahead of aesthetic ones and of threatening to
pollute the low-rise atmosphere of London.

Opening the Iron Gate. A long-dreamed-o
Eastern European engineering project was finally
brought to fruition in 1972 with the completion o
the Djerdap Dam over the Danube at the historic
Iron Gate, a 70-mi (1,100 km) stretch of sv/ift water
swirling with rapids, between Yugoslavia an
Romania. The two countries spent nearly SI billio|i
to tame the dangerous torrent, with anticipate
vast benefits in increased shipping on the river tha
had been called Eastern Europe's most under
developed resource. The project survived t e
Danube's worst flood of the 20th century in 19
and stayed on schedule. In 1972 barges moving
upriver negotiated the Iron Gate in 31 hr compare
with 120 hr required previously, even with the at
of locomotives on shore. . .

The earthfill dam was 196 ft (60 m) high an

Architecture and building engineering

4,100 ft (1,250 m) long, had a tv/o-chambar ship
lock on either side, and identical pov/erhouses that
produced 1,050,000 kv/ for each country Besides
sharing costs and benefits, Romania arc Yugo-
slavia contributed jointly to the engineer.'- g ^es'on
and the labor force. Construction was e/ec^ted
in three stages: (1) cellular cofferdams we-e ouiit
to enclose the lock and powerhouse strur ^ es on
both sides; (2) sections of the dam were e't-ncied
out into the river to match completion o‘ j-,wer-
house passages for the water flov;; a"c -3 the
final gap in midstream was closed by 1 j ro ng a
mass of concrete blocks. Each poweri-o-s-: vvas
equipped with six generators, four of wh -ec tbe
O'wner nation’s grid, v/hile the other two .j .'d be
connected to either grid, allowing for vai-/ 'u oeak
demand in the tv/o countries. In addition power
was to be sold to other Eastern European nations.

One detail of the project furnished a para’iel to
the rescue of the ancient Abu Simbel tempie du-'ing
construction of Egypt’s Asv/an High Dam in the
1960s. Yugoslav engineers carefully cut out of the
canyon wall a Roman bas-relief and inscription
commemorating the road built at the site by the
Emperor Trajan nearly 20 centuries before and
repositioned it above the nev/ level of the back-up
reservoir.

Pollution control projects. Air, v/ater, and other
types of pollution continued to draw the attention
of engineers and public officials in 1972.

The Chicago Metropolitan Sanitary District, for
example, began construction of the Salt Creek
Water Reclamation Plant, v;hich would pioneer a
nev/ tv;o-step aeration process to reduce ammonia

to less than 2.5 parts per million (ppm), suspended
solids to 5 ppm, and basic oxygen demand (BOD)
to 4 ppm. The plant was designed to meet the nev/,
strict standards laid dov/n by the state of Illinois.
The plant would be capable of handling 50 million
gal of flov/ per day. and a peak one-hour flow rate
of 67 million gal per day. Storm flov/ v/as given
primary sedimentation and chlorination treatment
before being discharged into Salt Creek.

S’weden announced a new incentive plan v/here-
by industries and tov/ns that began to build anti-
pollution systems or install air or v/ater purification
equipment could receive government grants

A double- 2 irfoil silhoucttb and
entrance portholes (left! arc
the distinguishing exterior
characteristics of an orthopedic
clinic in Allentown, Pa Designer
Noel Schalfer also planned the
14.300-sq It interior /above), using
a modular concept that can be
subdivided or expanded almost
at will to meet changing
requirements.

Courtesy, Stondord Oil

]

Shop-fabricated column-spandrel units form a series
of crosses atop the Standard Oil Building in Chicago
during construction in 1972. The building also utilized
tubular design to eliminate interior wind bracing.

covering 75% of the cost. The plan was designed
simultaneously to ease Sweden's unemployment
and improve its antipollution situation.

Sweden was also the site of the first world meet-
ing to discuss the pollution problem. In June 1972,
the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment met in Stockholm seeking to develop
environmental control techniques on the inter-
national level through monitoring, resource
management, and education, including assistance
to less-developed countries in finding ways to
advance economically while maintaining sound
environmental practices. A number of antipollution
steps v/ere taken on the international level in

Western Europe, where the European Economic
Community agreed on continent-wide automobile
emission standards, with the British and Swedish
governments joining in.

Tunneling ahead. One engineering approach to
pollution problems may be to dig. Underground
construction, definitely on the upswing throughout
the world, promised certain advantages in respect
to the environment, as Ellis Armstrong, commis-
sioner of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, among
others, pointed out. Armstrong spoke at a sym-
posium held by the Geological Society of America
in Washington, at which another engineer forecast
554 mi (886 km) of transportation tunnels would
be constructed in the 1970s, and up to 1,500 mi
(2,400 km) in the 1980s.

Transportation tunnels could provide high-speed
mass transit without damage to the environment.
They could also be beneficial as automobile car-
riers because the auto emissions might be collected
and treated before release to the atmosphere.
Tunnels might appear in a new form for one of
their oldest functions, that of water transport: a
proposal was under study for an offshore pipeline,
built as an immersed tube sunk in a trench of the
continental shelf, to help solve the water shortage
in southern California. Sweden, Norway, and other
countries increasingly employed underground
chambers for storing petroleum products, includ-
ing compressed gas cooled to a liquid state.

Behind the growing popularity of tunneling for a
variety of purposes was the improved capacity of
tunneling machines (moles), especially for tunnel-
ling through hard rock. Within the next decade the
giant borers were expected to become capable of
500 ft a day in hard rock and 1,500 ft a day in soft
ground. Their progress might soon make economi-
cally feasible an important antipollution measure
under consideration in many cities: undergroun
storage chambers forstorm waters. Such chambers
would permit the treatment of all wastewater, in
eluding storm water, received by a combined
system (virtually the only kind in existence). In 6
absence of a reservoir, this wastewater mus
bypass treatment plants whenever a heavy storm

flow occurs. ,

France’s new port. French engineers comple e
a major maritime construction project in the u
of Fos, 19 mi (30 km) west of Marseilles, a man-
made harbor that took advantage of a fine natura
harbor site. A long sandspit hooking out frorn s
mouth of the Rhone River on the west side of e
gulf half enclosed the inlet. The Marseilles por
authority engineers built a 2-mi (3-km) jetty
ing from the base of the gulf toward the point of e
sandspit, leaving an entranceway between.
the interior of the jetty four huge berths were bui

170

Astronautics and space exploration

for the new giant oil tankers. To give the letty a
foundation, a wide trench was first dug and Idled
with hard sand from the mouth of the Rhone
Gravel fill and rock fill completed the ernbankment
Within the harbor three broad channels we.e cut
into the uninhabited marshland to recede ore
S,r,te,s and container snips. Tna os narpor^
added to that at Marseilles proper, made the area
Europe's second largest port.

The Disney World water problem.
of the 30,000-ac Walt Disney World nea. OnanOo
Fla., which opened in October 1971 . .vas ^
Dossible by an ingenious system of h-d.aunc
engineering that overcame the table-flat
conflicting meteorological Phenomen. seasona,
droughts and tropical rainstorms To
water table from dropping and killing ^ ° ^
and to keep the entertainment area unflood^ed
through the year-round tourist seaso , -

of sS mi (8oU) of canals with 30
structures, and double-acting levees wa.
gates had to act automatically to cope with he

Lddenness of Florida downpours. The bewce

employed was not electrical or „

ever, but relied simply on a
buoyancy compartment: when t e cou
was adjusted for a particular water e;® •
ancy compartment operated the ga mid-1972
The world's largest

work was nearing completion on Sayano-

and abutment clearing wor ,he U.S.S.R.

Shushenskaya hydr®®'®^ P’’®’® expected to

When completed m 197^. ^ g,ec-

produce a worlds development

trie power. The project was pa

of Siberia's Yenisei-Angara ri Yenisei canyon
dam that would block the narrow Yenisei cany

was designed to rise 774 ft (23 rn .

Soviet planners hoped to bui Lough

dams in the project. This wou ^ industrial
power to provide the basi . riches of

development to exploit the metal ore

the region. _joseph Gies

Astronautics and space
exploration

The pace of manned space ® jjP'°L{y°Le flight

during the year .[^'states and none by the

to the moon by the Unite fijnhts consider-

Soviet Union. But in included probes

able activity took place^ ig spacecraft ever to
to Mars and Venus and
be launched to Jupitar.

Earth satellites

Earth-oriented satellites utilize the vantage point
of space in a number of ways, seeking increased
knowledge of the earth, economic benefit, and
military security. Also called applications satel-
lites, there are three seneral classes: commumca^
tions, earth-survey, and navigation. By 1972 each
had developed greatly in performance, capability,
sophistication, and promise for the future.

Sommunicalions satellites.
tions Satellite Corporation (Comsat), a U.S. fir ,
operates the global space communications net-
v/Lk for an 83-nation consortium. Four fourth
qeneration Intelsat 4 satellites were in orbit by
S 1972 Each of these 18-ft-tall by 8-ft-diameter
LtellSs provides an average of 6,000 two-way
telephone circuits or 12 color television channels
or Ls of thousands of telephone
operational lifetime of each is seven y®ars_ Thirty
nfne countries are now linked through 63 earth
stations By 1979 it was estimated that there would
be 90 ground antennae in about 58 countries.

All Comsat satellites are launched into Seosta
tionary or synchronous, orbits. This m^eans that
^ a certain orbital altitude. 22.300 mi the sate me
ilocS matches the angular rate of the earth s
Son Z<S mos remains tired o.er one portion

^ 'wheSs Vref rachard Nixon made Pis hlstorio

'' The development of satellites for secure corn-
h\/ 11 *^ military forcas advanced in

STSm TeS «o nlpn-powered

f nnrv satellites were launched using a
me broster. Fonr more mere planned to re-
o'laoe me sSer. lomer-pomered, -d limited.

S'S.?sSes nSe:e?.r,n

^ onn nsind 29 earth terminals. The satellites

E °sE“?;rdSrmSra“2S

SSnlcat.onssate,ii,es,s,em,o-Ppliea.ionm

Sd’BSlnra-SrsmaStttindi.
S^tTSS-Sradl b., Comsat and

SSsat'Sosa. moSld -P'°V 'hree saH-

. me than Intelsat 4s. each with a capacity
lites larger than imtis<-t

171

■ nautics and space exploration

color television channels, and would utilize
< ;al ground network of 132 stations.

' c'lmg the advantages that might be gained by
increased development of communications
iCieiiltes is the reduced cost of long-distance com-
. 0 jnications, both for the private consumer and for
data transmission by industry. In the realm of tele-
vision broadcasting, however, such satellites per-
haps offer their greatest promise of impact and
general benefit. The satellites in operation in 1972
required large, powerful receiving stations that
transmit television by microwave or landlines to a
local broadcasting station whose own transmitters
then beam the television image to home receivers.
Eventually, however, scientists may develop satel-
lites capable of broadcasting directly to home re-
ceivers. Such a satellite must have high broadcast
power and a large antenna. To meet these needs,
the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration (NASA) was currently developing the Ap-
plications Technology Satellite F (ATS-F). It was
to be equipped with a 30-ft-diameter antenna, the
largest yet deployed in space.

In 1973 the ATS-F satellite was scheduled to be
used by the government of India in a program of
mass education. Receiving television signals from
an Indian transmitter, the satellite would then
rebroadcast from its vantage point in space to ap-
proximately 5,000 villages. Each village, according
to the plan, would have an antenna and at least one
low-cost large-screen television receiver. Initially,
the programs were to deal with improvements in
agricultural practices and methods of population
control. The possible expansion of this experiment
within India could lead to direct linkage of all of
that nation's approximately 560,000 villages. Since
interlinking television landlines do not exist and
the country has insufficient funds to build them,
the broadcast satellite holds immense potential as

the most effective way of educating India’s 524
million people.

Meanwhile, Canada was moving ahead to orbit
Anik 1, the world's first domestic communications
satellite, late in 1972. Three of these satellites were
being constructed for Telesat Canada, and each
was designed to relay 12 communications chan-
nels. Each channel could provide one color tele-
vision program or as many as 960 voice channels.
Anik is an Eskimo word meaning brother.

In Europe development of the Franco-West
German Symphonie satellite continued. It was not
completed in time for the 1972 Olympic Games at
Munich, but a launch of the prototype in early 1974
was thought feasible.

Two more Molniya 1 and the first of the Molniya
2 communications satellites were launched in the
U.S.S.R. in 1971. The new design operates on
higher frequencies than the Molniya 1, more
closely approximating those of Intelsat 4.

The Soviet Union’s approach to communications
satellite systems remained quite different from
that of the U.S. Beginning in 1965, the U.S.S.R.
launched a series of Molniya 1 satellites in an orbit
inclined about 65° to the equator. The orbital path
was not geostationary but eccentric, moving clos-
est to the earth in the Southern Hemisphere and
reaching its highest altitude over the Northern
Hemisphere. This path permitted a Soviet satellite
to travel for a relatively long time, about eight
hours, over the portion of the earth visible to
U.S.S.R. ground terminals. Because the Soviet
craft are higher powered than corresponding U.S.
satellites, relatively low-cost ground terminals can
be used. Three such satellites, by proper spacing,
can achieve 24-hour coverage within the Soviet
Union. Ground terminal construction in the U.S.S.R.
continued at the rate of 6 to 8 per year, and by late
1972 there were about 50 stations.

Three simultaneous photographs of a portion of the earth's surface, exposed on (left to right) black and white

film with a green filter, near infrared black and white film, and black and white film with a red filter,

were taken by a camera system developed for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, launched in 1972.

Astronautics and space exploration

In late 1971 Cuba joined Intersputmk, the Soviet
bloc equivalent of Intelsat. The Cuban ground
station was scheduled to become operational m
1973

Earth-survey satellites. In this category are in-
cluded meteorological (weather), geodetx. earth
resources, and reconnaissance satellites Such
satellites are designed to survey the ea' h v/ith
various sensors, both photographic and electronic
in order to obtain and transmit data that cou'd no
be gained by other means.

Weather satellites. Only the U.S. and
Union in 1972 had operational satellites > c . -
tinuing global daily coverage. In the t. ^ t ,
National Environmental Satellite Ser.'ice "■ -
v/as responsible for weather satellite
NESS is a major element of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration of the
of Commerce. Developmental work on advanced
design satellites and all launchings into poUr orbit

v/ere conducted by NASA. nnpra-

In early 1971 NESS was controlling four ope

tional meteorological satellites. ''f°
spacecraft were primary sources of operatiojij^
cloud-cover data, and two v/ere j^P failure
failure of the primary system, n rni gfj

did occur and the two older,
v/ere "called up." Their sensors a .ggyjred.

were activated and they provide satellites

Two major uses are made o^'^ese^S^ satellite^

One is to store global cloud-cover data a^J 7
"dump" it (or read it out) on
tv/o U.S. command and data sing cen-

tion is then transmitted to centra p
ters for operational use on a globa
use for the satellites is the d'^ect readou^
mediate local use. This latter rmii

of Automatic Picture ^'’^^Site by more than
direct interrogation of the s and trust

500 APT s,a,,o„. loca,.d « in

territories. Because the NE surface can

polar orbit any point on the ear j cloud-

have direct access to a picture of regional,
indicated weather at least o^ice a satellite

White NESS conducted ,d-anccd

operations, NASA conunu Nimbus

systems and components. , Satellites

4 and two Applications ^echn^gv
(ATS-1 and -3). Nimbus 4 ’ "^g^./hich

sensors, an infrared spectrometer, data

is converted into a descript.o^f the ve
perature distribution in the daytime

satellites were oeosiadoncPA

pictures covered most of ppnuence technique

By use of a time-lapse movie small-

the development and mo i g<;timate low-

scale cloud systems are studied to e.r

and upper-level wind speed and direction and in
the diagnosis of hurricane and severe local storm
situations. National television weather reports
now alert regions on a daily basis as to where

severe storms may occur.

In 1971 the U.S. operational v/eather satellite
system completed five years of uninterrupted ser-
vice. During this period great quantities of data
on global v/eather movement were acqui red, stored,
and studied at the National Meteorological Center.
Suitland. Md. They proved useful in forecasting
weather conditions that endanger livestock in
western ranching regions, in marine advisories, in
sea and lake ice forecasts, and in tracking and fore-
casting the movements and intensities of severe

storms and hurricanas. • i

ness is conducting a number of studies, includ-
ing the monitoring of polar ice 7 "^^3

Dinq and snow surface ‘emperatures and he
manner in which tropical heat is injected into the
miHrfle latitudes. The results of such studies are
expected to lead to a better understanding of how
weather develops, thus improving short- and long-

'"™e°SovTet'i?nion continued to launch its Meteor
class of weather satellites, with four orbited suc-
cessfully in 1971. A cooperative P'’°9'’®7°v!r?hPrt
exchange of v/eather photographs v/as established

Kotwpsn th© U*S» 3nd th© U»S»w» »

Geodetic satellites. By simultaneous obse^ation
of a satellite from two distant points on the eart
surface the distance between these two points can
be determined with an accuracy not previously

oossible The first satellites used for geodesy were
possiDie. I 3 program

usinriSer observation equipment was carried out
by tL U.S.. several Western European countries,

. lanan Thr©© French and four U.S.
satellhes were used for observations. Such data
c?n correct maps and properly locate contments
arwell as measure the small annual continental

""''Earth resources satellites. As a logical outgrowth
of qrowing sophistication of observations of the
earth from the vantage point of space,
launched an Earth Resources Technology Satel
I r/ERTSI in mid-1972. Many of the sensors and
subsystems were advanced developrnents of those
Sed in the ATS series. Nimbus, and other space-
nft ERTS-A v/as launched in a near-polar, circu
^orbit af an ^taude of 492 mi. it weighed about
600 lb and had an estimated lifetime of one year.
Thp satellite carried three mam systems: a te e
vision camera, multispectra scanners, and a dam

“SeTulSeSm scanners detect the distinctive
electromagnetic radiation reflected by every cbjec.

173

,\';'.ronautics and space exploration

I ‘-arth, including its subsurface strata, itsatmos-
■ rats, and its oceans. Vegetation, for example,
ra s a distinct reflective "signature" different from

ater or bare earth. Different crops or trees have
c, derent signatures. Moreover, diseased plant life
>^ES a different signature from the healthy crop.

ERTS-A circled the earth every 103 minutes,
completing almost 14 orbits a day. It thus could see
any spot in the U.S. every 18 days. The satellite
scanned a 100-sq mi area, relaying overlapping
pictures back to earth or storing them to be relayed
later. A number of remote automatic data collec-
tion platforms were located in the U.S. and ‘its
coastal areas. Each platform had as many as eight
sensors, which sampled such local environmental
conditions as stream flow, snow depth or soil
moisture, and air and ground temperature. In-
formation from any platform was available to users
in less than 12 hours from time of measurement.
Three U.S. data acquisition stations are planned:
Fairbanks, Alaska; Mojave, Calif.; and NASA,
Greenbelt, Md.

Both ERTS-A and ERTS-B, to be launched in
1973, are essentially concerned with further de-
veloping the technology of this type of spacecraft.
Many scientists expect these satellites to be the
most useful of all applications of space flight. The

Thirty-toot-diameter antenna was deveioped
tor Appiicatlons Technoiogy Sateliites designed
to pioneer new educationai teievision, data relay,
air-traffic control, and information transmission systems.

CoorlMy, HaSA

data that they obtain will be made available to
hundreds of scientists in universities, state and
local governments, and federal agencies.

Listed below are the hoped-for benefits from
earth resources surveys:

In agriculture, the information gathered will aid in land
use planning, range management, identification and
combatting of crop diseases, and improved irrigation
planning.

In geology, scientists envision ERTS data being used
in monitoring glaciers and volcanoes, in improving earth-
quake predictions and warnings, and in identifying ter-
rain features usually associated with oil and mineral
deposits.

In hydrology, the ERTS system promises to produce
information useful in detecting water-pollution trends,
in providing an inventory of lake and reservoir levels and
rain and snow levels, in predicting the potential of floods,
and in the locating of other water reserves.

In oceanography, the ability of ERTS sensors to detect
changes in sea temperature may produce information
useful in showing the probable location of schools of
fish. ERTS data also promise benefits in aiding maritime
commerce by better charting of sea conditions, and in
spotting ice fields for iceberg warnings.

In geography, ERTS sensors will produce a constantly
updated map showing the various changes in the earth's
surface, as the result both of natural events and of build-
ing by man. This information promises to be of great value
for use in urban development and transportation planning.

From the standpoint of environment it is possibie
that ERTS wiil provide a powerfui tooi to assess
and monitor the earth’s ecoiogy on a giobal scale.
Infrared scanners, for example, can detect thermal
pollution in water— both day and night, while con-
ventional photographs from space can show dis-
coloration and patterns in bodies of water for
tracking and controlling pollutants. Ecologists
agree generally that only by dealing with the prob-
lem on a worldwide basis will man be able to save
his oceans and atmosphere from being destroyed
by pollution.

Reconnaissance satellites. The U.S. and Soviet
Union continued their reconnaissance satellite
programs, but they continued to be highly classi-
fied for security purposes and no details about
them were released. It was known, however, tha
the spacecraft involved in these prograrns uti-
lized extremely high-resolution photographic an
narrow-band electromagnetic radiation survei -
lance techniques.

Since the early 1960s both countries have
launched more than 175 military observation low-
orbit, satellites. All payloads were recovered after
a few days in orbit.

One additional type of U.S. military reconnais
sance satellite that deserves mention is the ve a.
Its purpose is to detect nuclear explosions in e
atmosphere and in space. Two Vela satellites v/ere
placed in orbit in 1970, the sixth pair in a series
that began in 1963.

Astronautics and space exploration

Navigation satellites. In the area of navigation
satellites, the U.S. Navy Transit systern continued
to be fully operational and in use by the U S fleet
throughout the world. Although commercial ships
were permitted to use this system, it required a
shipborne computer to calculate position from the
Doppler shift of the satellite’s signal and vv.s ihus
probably too expensive for widespread pubi'C use^
Future civilian systems were more likelv -o cepe
upon a signal transmitted from a ship v.a ,atel!. te
to a shore-based computer, where po=,uu..
could be determined and broadcast bac ^

The Soviet Union claimed to have an op^. r.iM
navigation satellite system, but release, .o
tails. NASA and the European Space R,-. . -
ganization were holding joint studies conu. .^g
sateliites that would be used for com .u^
and for surveillance of aircraft <'yicg '■ j

Atlantic air routes. This was expected .o pemit

aircraft to fly closer to one t 3 y

in 1972 airplanes must be separa ed -
distances of about 120 mi, a sateUi _ a, reran
system could permit continuing i x o pgijoral
only a few miles apart. Tests by ^

Aviation Administration °

tern could be in operation in t e ^

Manned space exploration

During the past year, manned space was

reduced. The United States successf ully °

the Apollo 16 lunar exploration, w {^ 1 .

Union did not launch any . „p(jed with

lowmg .hs .r.9lc So,uz ' ' "‘f !
the death of the three cosmona continued

U.S., the manned space flight P''09^ Congress,
to be criticized by some rnem ers ^
the science community, arid o P resources
There was a growing ‘ P

being used for the manned sp nation's do-

should be used in the s°'u<'OU ° ^Ing

mestic and welfare Problems Notwithstanding
criticism, U.S. Pres. Richard Nixo proceed v/ith
he had decided that the U.S. s ou space

the development of a new typ shuttle. In

transportation system called .ipngd on a joint
addition, preliminary planning c . gnd

U.S./Soviet Union international rendezvous

docking mission. „„nrhed from Cape

Apollo. Apollo g4r a d^'^y

Kennedy on April 16. 1972. j ^ jpe corn-

month for various ^ young. It was

,hd -f Jy 'ld«"

his fourth space flight, as lunar

on Apollo 10 •"<’ S'rnmi 3 aod^
module pilot was Charles ryi.

command module pilot v/as Thomas K. Mattingly II.
both rookies in space. The launch and flight into
lunar orbit were accomplished as scheduled ex-
cept for some minor problems with the S IVB sec-
tion of the Saturn V booster rocket.

The first major problem encountered in the rnis-
sion occurred in lunar orbit after separation of the
lunar module from the command module prior to
the start of lunar landing operations. It was found
that a secondary yaw gimbal actuation o" 'be
service module propulsion system osciUating.
Tests and analysis showed, however, that the sys-
tem was still usable and safe. This problem delayed
lunar landing approximately six hours.

The landing site for the 1 1 -day mission was 45 mi
N of the ancient crater Descartes on the hilly,
grooved, and furrowed edge of the Kant Plateau m
the central lunar highlands among the highest
mountains on the face of the
site coordinates v;ere 9 00’01 S and 15 30 50 .

This area of the moon was important to geologists
Scau^e r^k and soil samples from this site were
expected to provide information about the com
Dosition and age of the lunar surface and also in-
crease our knowledge about volcanic ^btivity and
the role it played in the evolution of the moon. Near
Z landing she were two large craters. North Ray
and South^Ray. which had thrown out huge blocks

°*Three^hjnar" surface excursions were taken by
Young and Duke. On the first, an b'^htne-powered
four-wheeled lunar rover was bbP'oyed. an Apollo
lunar surface experiments package ('‘'‘'-SE )

on the surface and activated, and geolog-
„“rob.amed. The eelronsule also
deolSS Ihe lirsl lunar aslronomlc.l observalion
deployeo ultraviolet Camera Spectrograph.

^h^devL took photographs of the earth, vanous
lavipi; and the Magellanic Clouds. From these
' SnSls expaeled lo be able lo sludy
earth’s atmosphere and magnetosphere and
hPir mteraction with the solar wind. In addition,
the spectrograph was designed to help astrono-
«:tudv the interstellar gas that is present
'll hnnf soace and the ultraviolet halos that
appWaW around galaxies. This experiment would
tWus provide an evaluation of the moon as a pos-
sWe site for future astronomical obsewations.

On the first excursion by Young and Duke, two
,u?ar Exploration stations were made in the vicnity
f fhP Flaa and Spook craters. On the second.

°lnloaicLnnvestig^tions and lunar sampling were
geological inves^gne 3 ^^ 3t several

Srs ?n the third trip the crew drove to the rim
S Sh Ray Crater and examined this area m
obtaining both rock samples and photo-
Shs. in total the Apollo 16 astronauts spent 20

175

' 'tronautics and space exploration

j irs and 14 minutes in lunar surface exploration,
ve'ing almost 17 mi and collecting about 213 lb
iock and soil samples.

-'.fter approximately 71 hours on the moon’s
. jrface, the crew initiated lunar ascent and ren-
dezvous and docked with the command module,
■‘'ne mission was terminated one day early. Landing
and recovery took place in the Pacific Ocean.

Apollo 17, scheduled to be launched in Decem-
ber 1972, is the last mission in the current U.S.
lunar landing exploration program. The landing

site selected is Taurus-Littrow in the northeastern
portion of the moon at 20'’10'N latitude and 30’48'E
longitude, and on the southeastern rim of the Sea
of Serenity. The area is characterized by material
that is believed to be ancient highland crustal
blocks emplaced by faulting and uplifting at the
time of the formation of the Serenity basin. Both
very old and much younger surface material are
expected to be present at the site. The objectives of
the mission will be to conduct lunar surface geo-
logical exploration, to establish another ALSEP

The reusable space shuttle is
designed to make possible a
more economical manned space
program. Alter being launched
by a reusable booster rocket,
the shuttle can deliver scientilic
payloads into earth orbit through
its open hatches (top). When its
mission is completed, the shuttle
can be landed like an airplane
(bottom).

Astronautics and space exploration

station, and to conduct lunar surface traverse
experiments. In addition, lunar orbital experiments
will also be conducted from the command module.

The same basic spacecraft and lunar rover vehicle
were to be used as in Apollo 15 and 16.

Skvlab. The fourth U.S. manned space f.ight
program, Skylab, was designed to
Apollo spacecraft and launch vehicles
cations for long-term earth orbital li ghts,
third stage of the Saturn V, the S IVB, was
to serve as an orbital workshop. It conta-ned living

quarters and the necessary

ing eating, and housekeeping to suppor three
crewLn for one 28-day and two BB-day missions^

It also contained medical and ^ ' q";;, t,op

engineering experiment equiprnent. worKshop

was 22 ft in diameter, 48 ft long. ' ~ ^

floors. Its environment was to be mam ^ ^
pressure of five pounds per square me.

«"o,phere of 70% oxygao and 3<1% „

An airlock module, consisting of a sp v.^
an airlock compartment, and equ'pmen. for sup
porting space walks by the Skyla crcA.
retrieve science experiments, was ‘ ’ I

to the orbital workshop. It also con ameci^sd^d._

tional crew working areas o P ' j^^gnts

resources and space-manufacturing expenmen^^

and housed the controls and displays ^ ,e
Telescope Mount. A third jggSs

docking adapter, was designed ° P . j which
, 0 , docking lha Apollo 00 . 0 ™"-™^;;^;;;^^
v/as to be used to transport the y
and from the orbital . , pggin in the

During operations, schedu ^workshop

spring of 1973, the “nman ,g locking

with the airlock module ^ caturn V into

adapter was to be launched by a 3 „g,

earth orbit at an altitude of _ _ would be
the Skylab launch, three cr module by a
launched in the Apollo module to

Saturn IB. They would fly the cc^a"jt,n° work-
a rendezvous and docking wi activate the

Shop. The three crewmen would then act

orbital workshop and ce^ny
ments within it for 28 days, in the

deactivate the workshop an another three-

command module. Sixty day ■ revisit

man crew would be ® A third three-man

the orbital workshop for 56 y ■ another

crew would be launched 60 days later

56-day mission. ^._,gre scheduled

In the Skylab program, thee fields.

to perform experiments conducted to study

Medical experiments wou _ these studies,
the various body sy^e^.^ information on the
scientists expected to o lona-term manned

nhvsiolonical responses to lo 9

space flight and the crew's ability to adapt to a
weightless environment. These medical studies
were considered to be of extreme importance to
future manned flight programs. Science experi-
ments were expected to include geophysics
physics of the upper atmosphere f
Ldies of the sun. The Apollo Telescope Moun
was to contain a complex solar observatory that
would permit observations and ""^^summents to
be made on the sun that are 7"';®

from the ground because of ^^ 3 °

sDhere An earth resources instrument package
vms to be used to conduct broad surveys «« crops
qeological formations, weather conditions, and
qross^ vegetational regions. Engineering and
Lhnolog? experiments were to
processing and manufacturing m the weightless

""spL'e^rhuttle. in the past year, preliminary d^
cinn concepts were established for a reusable
manned spacecraft called the space shuttle. Space
■noort; conceived it to be an airplanelike vehicle
th"at could be used repeatedly to take satellites into
orbit and bring them back for repair and service as

oroH hv three hydrogen-oxygen rocket
.nd have Tcargo Ly 15 ft in diameter and

engines and have a cag^^J ,^^3

M^'poarate and fly into orbit like a spacecraft.

and scientist passengers would
n ,wa to'aunch unmanned satellites and space

-- “ ^'d sXtsS: a"n??etr."anrr

-atr-'adjCr'llVe tg ta. TPe l.rst space
Shuttle llight was ,sa,. the

„ IT? Jd nouaunch a™? manned missions. The

mSsoVu“tl. launched June 6. 1971. was
iheSmanned Soviet space llight. In this mission
SrSw was launched in the Soyoz spacecra 1
?Knn rendezvoused with Salyut. a large orbit-
fng space station 66 ft long and 13 ft in diameter.

177

; :• cnautics and space exploration

Courtesy, NASA

Apollo 16 commander John IV. Young works on the Lunar Roving Vehicle (left). Astronaut Charles
M. Duke, Jr., piloted the lunar module (right) and astronaut Thomas K. Mattingly II remained with
the command and service modules in lunar orbit during NASA's fifth manned voyage to the moon.

The crew transferred to the Salyut space station
and performed biomedical studies similar to some
of the planned Skylab medical experiments.
Studies in astrophysics and meteorology were
also conducted. The crew made observations on
the earth's weather conditions, and these were
then coordinated by earthbound scientists with
photographs transmitted from unmanned weather
satellites.

The crewmen terminated the mission 24 days
after the launch. They moved back into the Soyuz
11, separated from the Salyut, and started the
procedures to reenter the earth's atmosphere.
Shortly after the reentry rockets were fired, there
was a loss in communications. When the space-
craft landed, ground crewmen found that the
three cosmonauts, Georgi T. Dobrovolsky, Vladi-
slav N. Volkov, and Viktor I. Patsayev were dead. A
Soviet commission appointed to study the cause of
the accident reported that a hatch or valve failure
created a rapid decompression of the Soyuz 11
spacecraft, killing the three cosmonauts. The
Salyut remained in orbit until Oct. 11, 1971, when
retro-rockets were fired and it was destroyed dur-
ing reentry into the earth's atmosphere.

International cooperation in space research.
The U.S. and the Soviet Union continued to work
together to determine the feasibility of an inter-
national docking mission. As envisioned in 1972,
three Apollo crewmen would be launched in an
Apollo command module to rendezvous and doc
with three crewmen aboard the Soyuz spacecra t.
The crewmen would move from one spacecra
to the other to perform joint operations. This mis-
sion would lay the foundation for internationa
space rescue missions. Engineers and scientists
from the two countries exchanged technical design
data to establish the required docking interfaces
between the two spacecraft. Formal approya o
the mission was made during President Nixons
visit to the Soviet Union in May 1972.

In other international cooperative efforts e
tween the U.S. and U.S.S.R., biomedical specialists
met in Moscow in the fall of 1971 to start the ex
change of medical data from the manned
flight program. A second meeting was held at e
Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Tex., dur
ing May 1972 to exchange medical results from
Soyuz 11 and the Apollo program.

-Richard S. Johnston

178

Astronautics and space exploration

Space probes

Despite the landing of still more men on ^oon
1972 was clearly the year

dawned, three probes were m orbit about the
planet, transmitting an incredible o .

formation about its topography
and atmospheric physics. In addition ‘o
ned landings by Americans, the moon
target for unmanned probes from the ■

year also saw man’s first probe launched to uupiter
and another launched to Venus.

Probing Mars. With both the United S
the Soviet Union concentrating on stud.e . - .

scientists of the v/orld had high n-ar^lul

tion between the two nations. Indeed, = P^

"hot line" was operating in November e- . -

tween the Jet Propulsion

Calif., and the Academy of Sciences o >

in Moscow, to exchange data from P'' '■„o...,.ever,

try's probes. It soon became appa • ^

that the "hot line" was a victirn

scientist at the Jet t ° f'us i=

marked, 'The big disappointment ^ '^5 of

that they haven’t '’e^ponded to our s gg

some cooperative ventures. Sine ^.^22

U.S. spacecraft each had of data

unique, the lack of a cooperative e^hang^e^of d^a^_

betv/een the two countries ^.^25 not wholly

heartening. However, ‘P® on January 9

unused. At one point, the Tereberus, in

detected a 15= rise in temperature at Cereber

The infrared spectrometer
aboard the Mariner 9 measures
atmospheric and surface
characteristics of Mars.

Radiation from the planet is
reflected from a three-position
mirror and then passed through
a filter that screens out all
but a certain range of infrared
tight. The light vraves are then
reflected from a fixed mirror
to a beamsplitter and a movable
mirror. The latter changes the
distance that the waves travel,
thereby either strengthening or
canceling out the waves rellecte
to the beamsplitter. The detector
senses the wave interference
caused by the movable mirror,
and analysis of the interference
patterns identifies gases
particles allecting the infrared
radiation that passes throug
the Martian atmosphere.

the Eastern Hemisphere of Mars
They asked their American counterparts if they to
had noted it. A review of data from Marine 9 did
show a 10’ rise in the area at the same time. Late m
December, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists
sent a Mariner 9 photograph of the
Soviet Mars 3 pod to their ^3

Mariner 9 entered orbit about Mars o" Now 13
1971 It initially completed one orbit in 12 hours
Ind 34 minutes with a periapsis, or point closest to
me planet of 1 ,397 km (868 mi) and an apoapsis or

polnUaShes, from », o. US27
maneuver was made tv/o days later that sligntiy
reduced the time of orbit and lowered the apoapsis
to 17 048 km (10,655 mi), while changing the space-

erafl’s anqVof inclination to the Martian equator

frnm 64 28= to 64.36’. Since Mariner 9 had arrived
It Sars during a violent dust storm, scientists a
the^Jet Propulsion Laboratory were
lat me pnoto9,apt.s l,om IIS two »“>"
eras would reveal. Instruments aboard the spa
c,a„ inPicated Iha,

me' Pla'neds eiirremely m?n almosphere, Hoaiever,

« mai’: 3eSr™-a?Sfl0 'S

s“.e™.rpl.0.c.-maPPm9 »'

on Jan. 1. 1972. revealed a wealth of

-faffeatures Typical of these was a great

ofeiasm along tfe Martian equator about

';'i°pn°(:i3o"oml)loP9end96ani|SOml)w.de

Courtesy, NASA

Wide-angle photograph of Mars taken by Mariner 9
on Jan. 12. 1972, reveals a vast chasm with canyons
branching into adjacent plateaus. Crust subsidence
and wind erosion may have sculpted this unique landform.

unobserv'able from the earth because of its orien-
tation with respect to the sun's rays. Similar fea-
tures elsewhere found the scientists at Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory hard put to describe their origin
to anything except erosion by running water, al-
though there clearly v/as no liquid water currently
on the planet.

From the pictures a concept of Mars emerged
that was radically different from that which scien-
tists held after studying the photographs from
Mariners 6 and 7. Harold Masursky, U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, said that instead of a dead, primordial
planet, "Our photographs show something very,
very different indeed. By seeing much more of
the planet we can see great volcanic piles and
because of the crispness of the edges and the
lack of craters, we think these are geologically-
young. The only thing we can keep as a primitive
body are the two Martian satellites. Those do look
like unevolved bodies, but Mars itself turned out
to be even more dynamic than we had hoped."

Equally as exciting and important data were re-
turned by the other instruments of Mariners. Data
derived from the analysis of the refraction of sig-
nals from the craft by the Martian atmosphere
indicated that the atmospheric pressure ranged
between 3 millibars at the highest points on the
surface to 8.3 millibars at the lowest point. The
average atmospheric pressure was about 5.5 milli-
bars (compared with an average on earth of 1,013
millibars). The same experiment shov/ed that the
Martian ionosphere was at an altitude of approxi-
mately 149 km (93 mi) compared with a height of
only 135 km (84 mi) measured in 1969 by Mariner?.

180

The dust storm was probably the cause for the
difference.

Gravitational variations in the planet caused
considerable discussion among scientists. From
an analysis of the variations in the velocity of the
spacecraft, it appeared that Mars has a bulge of
about 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) on the equator at
110’ W and a similar one at 70= E. In between these
bulges, at 90-degree intervals, are slight depres-
sions. There v/as no immediate explanation for
this observation.

An infrared spectrometer on Mariner 9 indicated
that there was about 0.001 the amount of water
vapor in the atmosphere above the Martian south
pole as there is in the same region of the earth. It
also indicated that the amount of water vapor was
greater over the south pole than elsewhere over
Mars. The ultraviolet spectrometer provided data
which showed that as much as 379,000 I (100,000
gal) of water per day could be lost from the Martian
atmosphere. The source of this water was as-
sumed to be volcanic.

Measurements of the Martian surface tempera-
ture seemed generally cooler than those reported
by previous probes. The daytime high at mid-after-
noon was about 240= K (—32.8= F), and it was about
200= K (-104.8= F) at night.

Published information from the Soviet Mars 2
and 3 probes was sketchy at best Arriving at Mare
on Nov. 27, 1971, Mars 2 went into a highly ellipti-
cal orbit with a periapsis of 1 ,376 km (860 mi) and
an apoapsis of 25,000 km (15.600 mi). The periapsis
was lowered by 149 km (93 mi) a month later. The
orbit had an angle of inclination to the Martian
equator of 48= 54' and completed one orbit in 18
hours. Just before the probe entered orbit, it de
tached a capsule toward the planet Apparently the
capsule was not intended to soft-land.

Mars 3 arrived at the planet on Dec. 2, ^

assumed an orbit with a periapsis of 1,484 km (
mi) and an apoapsis of 192,000 km (120,000 mi),
which produced an orbital period of 11 days, f-srs
3 also ejected a capsule, which soft-landed on the
planet south of its equator in the Simois
Unfortunately, the instrumented pod was damage
on landing, or it sank into a deep layer of Marticn
dust. Only 20 seconds of video signals were re
ceived. The pod was a highly sophisticated
tific package that would have provided z
of information on surface conditions had it oper
ated. Among these instruments were sensors o
measure the temperature and atmospheric pres
sure, a mass spectrometer to analyze the chemiw
composition of the atmosphere, an anemome er
for measuring wind velocities at ground level, an
instruments to determine the composition of i s
soil as well as its mechanical properties.

Both the Mars 2 and 3 orbiters had infrared
radiometers for mapping surface
terns. Radiofrequency telescopes m 3-cm

1 2-in ) range probed the properties of the f. artian
soil Ultraviolet photometers measured tne lumi-
nescence of the upper atmosphere to detect atormc
hydrogen, oxygen, and argon, n addition, the

radiov/ave signals from both ' oy

as were those of Mariner 9 for their difiracion bv

the Martian atmosphere to determine ^sure

profiles and altitude of the ionosphere. E3c.,..obe
also had tv/o cameras, as did Mariner S ^ -

wide-angle and telephoto pictures of the
However, the pictures taken by
were developed on board the ord'ters ^h^^n
transmitted to the earth, while in ' s.or.als

pictures were converted electronically to s.g^s

for dark and light areas and the ° ^ ^

transmitted to the earth for reconstitution P

tures by computers. .,i„rvo thp

Mars 3 reported that temperatures Jo 9 h

planet’s equator did not exceed 15 ^ ^ '

Temperatures along the planet,

between the dark and sunlit si e ' ”^2, P

ranged between -80° C ^ j Jeniaximum

-130° F). The craft also only

daytime temperature in the mi ^ata

-15° C to -20’ C (5° F to -4’ i^)- °rp;obes
released by the Soviets from atmo-

were that water vapor was greate
sphere over the Hellas region /s,nalyses of

of the planet except the polar reg ■ J ,

the orbits of the craft suggested that Mars

50% flatter at the poles than is the
Exploring the moon. ThroughouUuly^a

gust 1971, Lunokhod eight-wheeled,

delight its Soviet developer - landing site

self-propelled vehicle ^ ° gnd taking

in the Sea of Rains, sampling the soi

Astronautics and space exploration

a variety of panoramic and stereo photographs.
Toward the end of its ninth

a relatively fresh crater approximately 90 m (297 ft)
in diameter By the end of the day it had covered a
olarSncfol 10,237 m (33.782 It). BySapl. 11.
1971 it had survived 11 lunar days (1 lunar day
= about 14 earth days), but its
weakening drastically. On October 4, Lunokhod 1
SoToilssloo oi active Icna, exPloralioe^ le
10 months and 17 days, it had travelled 10.540 rn
(34 782 ft) and taken 200 panoramic pictures and
another 20,000 single viev/s of lunar fea ures. 1
S made mechanical and physical analyses o
the lunar soil at 500 different places and chemicj
analyses at 25 locations. (The chemical analyze
Sfed after seven months.) The robot was left
narked in a position so that its French-built laser
?efSfo) was pointed toward the earth, insuring
that it could be used for years to come.

On Sept 2. 1971, the Soviet Union
, nna 18 from Tyuratam. It entered a lunar orb, on
Stembe°7 at^an altitude of 96 krn (60 m.) at -

Smg°5ro"rbilS thl°moon!Luna 1^ crashed in^to
the Sea of Fertility, while trying to make a s

'^Luna'l9 followed Luna 18, being launched from
cipotember 28. It entered a circular

Tyuratam on SePtembe 3

vers ina apolune of 385 km

p ^ ThP anole of inclination remained un-

and the breaking up of
over a 25-day period early m 19/^

Ccwr*e»y. NASA

Courtesy, Toss from Sovfofo

Portion ot a circular panoramic photograph taken
by Lunokhod t s astrotelephotometer
in 1971 shows portions ol the landing stage
and the original tracks made by the sell-propelled
vehicle against a background ol the night sky.

182

ever, it also investigated the lunar magnetic field
and cosmic radiation in the vicinity of the moon.

Luna 20, the back-up probe for Luna 18, was
launched from Tyuratam on February 14 and
entered a circular orbit four days later. For three
days it continued to orbit the moon at 99.2 km
(62 mi) at an angle of 65° to the equator. It soft-
landed on February 21 in a highland region be-
tween the Sea of Fertility and the Sea of Crises
about 120 km (72 mi) north of the landing site of
Luna 16.

The probe featured a much improved drill that,
unlike the wholly automated machinery on Luna 16,
was controlled by engineers in the Soviet Union
via television. The drilling operation required 30
minutes and reached a depth of approximately
33 cm (13 in.). The drill struck extremely hard mate-
rial at a depth of 14.5 cm (5.7 in.), and it took seven
minutes to remove the drill core from its hole. The
return capsule with about 100 g (3.5 oz) of lunar
soil lifted off from the moon on February 23 and
landed in the U.S.S.R. on February 25.

A probe to Jupiter. Pioneer 10 was launched on
March 2 from Cape Kennedy, Fla. The 258-kg
(570-lb) probe was designed to pass within 144,000
km (90,000 mi) of Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973, after a
voyage of 800 million km (500 million mi). Launched
on a direct ascent trajectory, the craft reached a
velocity of 51,840 km/hr (32,400 mph), making it
the fastest probe ever to be sent into space. A mid-
course maneuver was made on March 7 to ensure
that the craft was on the desired trajectory to
Jupiter.

The probe contained 11 scientific instruments
to investigate the interplanetary medium, the
asteroid belt, and the environmental and atmo-
spheric properties of Jupiter. These included an
imaging photopolarimeter, a helium vector mag-
netometer, a plasma analyzer, a charged particle
counter, a Geiger-tube telescope, a trapped radia-
tion detector, an ultraviolet photometer, an in-
frared photometer, and an asteroid-meteroid
detector.

The trajectory of the probe was planned to take
it directly through the asteroid belt between Mars
and Jupiter. While the possibility existed that
Pioneer 10 could be destroyed by a collision with
one of the millions of fragments in the belt, such a
probability was believed to be very small. Indica-
tions were that it would come no closer than 48
million km (3 million mi) to any of the known aste-
roids. After swinging past Jupiter and gaining
velocity in the process. Pioneer 10 was designed
to escape from the sun’s gravity and fly into inter-
stellar space, the first man-made object to do so.

New data from the sun. OSO 7 (Orbiting Solar
Observatory) was launched on Sept. 29, 1971, from

Astronautics and space exploration

Cape Kennedy. The second stage malfunctioned
and the probe went into a slightly elliptical orbit
rather than the circular one planned. The space-
craft’s perigee was 342 km (214 mi), the apogee
was 597 km (373 mi), and the angle of inclination
to the earth's equator v/as 33.1°. The primary mis-
sion of OSO 7 was to obtain high-resolution data
of the solar corona in special ultraviolet spectra
and to investigate the intensity and spectrum of
solar and cosmic X rays. By the end of November,
scientists had gathered enough data to term the
mission a success.

Among the data received from OSO 7 vras the fact
that the polar regions of the sun were cooler than
its equatorial regions, a difference of 1,000,000= C
(1,800,032= F) being reported by the probe. It also
reported clouds of hot, energized gas erupting
from the sun’s surface that were 20 to 40 times the
size of the earth. The energy involved in these
eruptions was equal to the total electrical power
requirements for the U.S.. at the current rate of
consumption, for the next million years.

Another try at Venus. On March 26. the Soviet
Union launched the 1,180-kg (2,596-lb) Venera 8
on a trajectory toward Venus. Like its predeces-
sors, the probe was designed to soft-land a sphe-
roidal instrument package on Venus to measure
temperatures and pressures at ground level.

A look into the future. Scientists throughout the
world were disappointed v/ith the announcement
in 1972 that the U.S. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) had cancelled its
ambitious "Grand Tour" that v/ould have sent a
probe to the outer reaches of the solar system in
1977-79. The Grand Tour envisioned a probe that
would utilize a lineup of the planets that v/ill not
reoccur for about 1 80 years to propel itself through
the solar system by the additional velocity im-
parted to it by the gravitational fields of the various
planets. The program was cancelled because of
the decreasing space budget.

As an alternative to the Grand Tour, NASA pro-
posed to launch two Mariner probes in 1977 on
flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn. Plans were

The path of the U.S. space probe Piorteer 10 will take it within 90,000 mi of the surface of Jupiter in
December 1973. Launched on March 2. 1972. the probe must travel 500 million mi to reach its destination.

Co-.— eri-, NASA

t/.ap of the sofsr corona, obtainsd by the OrbWng
Solar Obsan-alory 7, is presented on a computerized
display. The white areas are the hottest and contain
the greatest quantities of ionized gas.

also revealed for flyby missions in 1973 to Venus
and li'.ercury.

During 1972, work continued on the \nking, an
unmanned probe scheduled to land on Mars in
1976. The 1,200-kg (2,400-lb) probe was expected
to be heavily instrumented to anal>'ze the I/artian
soil for the presence of microbacterial forms of
life. However, the wealth of geological data re-
turned by Mariner 9 prompted many scientists to
ask the space agency to consider placing more em-
phasis on geological than biological instrumen-
tation.

— Mitchell R. Sharpe

Astronomy

During the past year, astronomy of the solar system
gained a temporary prominence because of new
findings about the moon and Mars. Even so, the
underlying trend was a grovrth in radio astronomy
and in high-energy astrophysics, directed toward
the problems of stars, the Milky Way, radio sources,
galaxies, and the universe.

New Mexico radio telescope. In March 1972, the
U.S. National Science Foundation announced the
selection of a 3,000-ec desert site near Socorro.
N.M.. as the proposed location forthe world's most
sensitive radio telescope. This instrument, .known
as a VLA (very- large array), was designed to con-
sist of 27 dish-shaped antennas, each 82 ft in di-
ameter. The antennas are to be movable along
each of three 13-mi arms of a Y-shaped layout o'f
railroad track. This array would afford a resolution
1 0 to 1 03 times greater than that given by any exist-
ing array. The VLA would be managed by the Na-
tional Radio Astronomy Obser\-atory. If the U.S.

Congress appropriates the funds for theS76 million
projecL the facility could go into partial operation
by 1976 and full operation by 1982.

The significance of the New Mexico undertaking
is that it would be the first major ne w U.S. radio
astronomy facility in a decade. Its construction
would tend to restore the U.S.'s lead in radio as-
tronomy, which had been slipping in favor of the
Netherlands, West Germany, and the So\iet Union.

The moon's interior. By 1972, the state of lunar
science had become much healthier than a decade
earlier, as its emphasis chanced increasingly from
speculation to weighing a great variety of empirical
facts. A large amount of this new information was
afforded by the successful visits of Apollo lAtothe
Fra Mauro region in February 1971, and of Apollo
15 to Hadley Rille in July' of that year. Many of the
findings from Apollo 14 and some from Apollo 15
were first announced at a lunar science conference
held in January' 1972, at Houston. Tex. Asignificant
aspect of that conference was the emergence of a
fairly detailed picture of the moon's interior, which
not so long ago had seemed hopelessly inacces-
sibla

Seismometers were left behind on the moon by
Apollos 11, 12, 14, and 15. YiTiile the first of these
devices ceased to function after a few weeks, the
other three stations registered hundreds of seismic
events, including both moonquakes and impac*3.
To locale the epicenter and depth of a seismic
event requires records from a minimum of three
suitably spaced stations, which became possible
only in August 1971, v/hen the Apollo 15 seismom-
eter was planted.

In new controlled experiments, the impact of the
spent third stage of Apollo 1 5 as it crashed onto the
moon's surface was detected by the Apollo 12 and
1A stations, while the lesser impact of the d’.s-
carded Apollo 15 ascent stage was registered at all
three stations. These tests confirmed again that
strong oscillations persist for at least an hour when
the moon's surface is struck a violent blow, injs
prolonged vibration time is explained by the pres-
ence of a surface layer a few kilometers thick,
which scatters seismic waves effectively and tends
to confine their energy.

Gary' Latham of Columbia University, the leader
of an active croup of lunar seismologists, v.-as able
to distinguish between true moonquakes and
meteorite impacts through a study of wave forms
(curves representing the conditions of wave-prcpa-
gating media el particular instants). Despite tne
extreme sensiti'vity' of the Apollo 15 seismometer,
vv'hich can detect surface displacements as sma'l
as 10'- cm. moonquakes are fe*v end wea'<. even
the largest amounting to only 1 or 2 cn the Richter
scale. (On earth, such qua'<es are at test barely

18 ^

Coortejy, fJASA

perceptible without instruments.) Seismically,
the moon is much less active than the earth. AC'
cording to Latham, each square mile of lunar
surface releases only 10*^ as much seismic en^
ergy, on the average, as does a square mile on
the earth.

Most of this energy release is in the form of
periodic moonquakes that tend to occur near the
times when the moon is nearest and farthest from
the earth (perigee and apogee). These quakes
appear to originate only in a dozen or so separate
locations. One of these places is responsible for
about 80% of the seismic energy. It is located near
the crater Bullialdus, at a depth of 500 mi. The
seasons of activity (perigee and apogee) are the
times when the tides produced in the moon's crust
by the earth’s gravitational attraction are greatest.
Hence, the periodic moonquakes seem to originate
in recurrent rock slippages triggered by tidal
forces. The existence of a focus 500 mi deep means
that even halfway down from the surface to the
center the moon's interior is still rigid enough to
support appreciable stress. The moon's interior,
thus, cannot be molten at that level.

From an analysis of travel times of moonquakes
in the Mare Imbrium region, it was found that the
velocity of seismic waves increases with depth to
about 4 mi/sec at a depth of near 15 mi. The mate-
rial above 15 mi is thought to be primarily basalt.
Then, down to a depth of about 40 mi, the velocity
remains nearly constant. This layer is believed to
be either eclogite or anorthosite. At about 40 mi,
the velocity of compressional waves increases
abruptly to about 5Vz mi/sec, indicating a dis-
continuity beneath which the material is probably
olivine.

Further information about the moon's interior is
furnished by studies of magnetism. The instru-
ments left by Apollo 14 indicated at that site a
steady magnetic field for the moon of little more
than 50 gammas (10-3 of the earth’s field). The
steady field at the Apollo 12 base was 38 gammas,
and at the Apollo 15 site only 5 gammas. Thus, the
present general magnetic field of the moon is very
weak, as was also shown by magnetometers used
aboard orbiting Apollo spacecraft.

Oddly enough, however, most of the rock sam-
ples brought back by the astronauts and measured
in terrestrial laboratories showed large remnant
magnetism. In the remote past when these rocks
were formed, they must have solidified in a mag-
netic field much stronger than the moon now has.

The moon's response to the changing magnetic
fields of the earth and the sun has been studied.
The results are compatible with a three-layer model
of the moon, in which a 60-mi-thick outer crust at
440' K overlies an intermediate zone at 800' and a

Tiny green glass Iragment was taken from an Apollo 1A
core tube sampling. The Iragment, constituted mainly
of iron and magnesium, has been nicknamed
the Genesis bean because of its great ago, possibly
dating back to the beginnings of the solar system.

1,100’ central core of 1,200-mi diameter. This
model assumes that the moon’s interior consists
primarily of olivine.

A number of lines of evidence pointed to the
moon either being solid throughout, or having only
a small molten core. One argument is based on the
weakness of the steady magnetic field; this field,
according to some astronomers, would be much
stronger if the moon had a large liquid core, free
to move relative to the crust. Another argument is
that the deviations of the moon’s surface from a
sphere are so great that they can persist over long
periods of time only if the moon’s interior has
considerable rigidity.

However, an apparent contradiction is offered by
measurements of heat flow outward through the
moon’s crust. In one of their more difficult tasks
while at Hadley Base. Apollo 15 astronauts David
Scott and James Irwin drilled two holes into the
ground in which they emplaced temperature-
sensing probes at depths of 3 ft and 5 ft belov/ the
surface. Because of the excellent heat-insulating
properties of lunar soil, there is no perceptible day-
night temperature at depths of more than 2 ft.
Below that, the temperature was observed to in-
crease at a rate of 0.5' K per foot. This implies
a heat flow from belo'.v the Hadley site about half
that in the earth’s crust— considerably higher than
astronomers had expected. It seemed to indreate
very high temperatures in the moon’s interior.

185

Astronomy

One explanation for this finding was that the
Hadley site may not be typical of the moon and that
the average heat flux could be much smaller. An
alternative hypothesis was that lunar radioactivity
is concentrated in the moon’s outer layers, heating
them and thus producing a larger ouhvard heat
flux than occurs in the deep interior. This possibil-
ity is supported by the high uranium and thorium
concentration measured in many of the rock sam-
ples returned from the moon’s surface.

New observations of Mars. An exceptionally
favorable opposition of Mars occurred in August
1971, when that planet’s distance from the earth
became as small as 34.9 million miles. Mars would
not be as close again during the rest of the 20th
century. With headquarters at Lowell Obser\’atory
in Arizona, an international photographic patrol
program was mounted at a network of observa-
tories in Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America,
whereby thousands of excellent photographs were
obtained on a uniform plan. Many other observa-
tories conducted their own photographic or visual
programs.

However, these optical observations were se-
verely hampered for several months by a vast dust
storm on the surface of Mars, which was first
photographed on September 22. It spread rapidly
and about two weeks later had enveloped the entire
planet in a heavy yellow veil, dimming or obliterat-
ing the surface features. This storm did not begin
to abate until January 1972.

The U.S. spacecraft Mariner 9 began orbiting
Mars on Nov. 13, 1971. Once the planet’s atmo-
sphere began to clear, the craft’s television cam-
eras obtained highly detailed pictures of the
Martian surface. These views provided strong
evidence that many features on Mars are of vol-
canic origin. For example, there are numbers of
craters clearly resembling the earth’s calderas
— depressions made by the collapse of the central
parts of volcanoes when magma is drained from
beneath them.

A striking Martian example of this is Nix Olym-
pica. Mariner 9 photographs showed this as a 4-mi-
high mountain, 300 mi across at its base and
topped by a volcanic vent about 40 mi vride. This
great mountain is similar to, but even larger than,
Mauna Loa in the Hawaiian Islands, which rises
from the Pacific floor to a summit volcano.

Other newly discovered Martian surface forma-
tions included a long, 75-mi-wide trough cutting
through the Tithonius Lacus region, and sinuous
valleys that superficially resemble terrestrial
arroyos. However, these features are in most cases
probably the results of collapses along lines of
weakness in the crust, combined with erosion by
wind-blown dust. There is too little water on Mars

Astronomy

lor running water to be an important agency in
shaping the surface, although it might have been
a factor in the past.

The Mariner pictures gave the general impres-
sion of a planet that has been geologically active
in the past and whose surface has been greatly
altered by volcanism, crustal movements, and
erosion. A large proportion of Mars's craters must,
however, continue to be regarded as resulting from
meteorite impacts.

Close-up Mariner photographs revealed that the
Martian satellites Phobos and Deimos are irregu-
larly shaped dark bodies, respectively 14 and 8 mi
in diameter. Each is densely cratered, one Phobos
crater being 3 mi wide.

Instruments carried by Mariner to measure the
planet's ultraviolet and infrared radiations provided
interesting findings. For example, a new tempera-
ture measurement of the south polar cap confirmed
that the cap maferfaf is primarily carbon dioxide
frost and not frozen water. The observed tempera-
ture closely matched that which solid carbon
dioxide in equilibrium with its vapor must have at
the atmospheric pressure obtaining on Mars. A
second result was that the planet-wide obscuration
in late 1971 was due to airborne silicate dust,
resembling in its optical properties the surface
material of Mars's ocher (yellowish) deserts.

Two Soviet spacecraft also orbited Mars begin-
ning in late November and early December 1971.
Both Mars 2 and 3 ejected instrumented capsules
to make soft landings on the planet. Although the
second attempt succeeded, the capsule's radio
transmitter failed soon after landing.

Few early results were made public from the
instruments operated aboard Mars 2 and 3 while
they orbited the planet. A faint airglow of atomic
hydrogen extends 500 mi above the Martian sur-
face, and ultraviolet emissions from atomic hydro-
gen reach much higher. The Soviet observations
confirmed the very low abundance of water vapor
in the Martian atmosphere, giving it as less than
the equivalent of a 0.005-mm layer of liquid water.

Extensive studies of Mars were also made with
large earth-based radar telescopes operated by
scientific teams at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) and the California Institute of
Technology (Caltech). A radar observation gave the
distance from the telescope to the nearest point
on the Martian globe; as the planet rotates, succes-
sive observations yield a profile of the vertical relief
along an east-west strip of the planet's surface.
Such observations had been made since 1963, but
by 1971 techniques had become so refined that
elevation differences on the order of 200 ft could
be measured. Both the MIT and Caltech teams
reported that they could detect many individual
Martian craters identifiable on Mariner photo-
graphs, and that they could determine rim-fo-floor
depths lor the larger craters.

Occultations by Jupiter. An astronomical event
of extreme rarity occurred on May 13. 1971, v/hen
the planet Jupiter passed in front of (occulted) the
2.6-magnitude star Beta Scorpii. It was the bright-
est star occulted by this planet since observations
began with the invention of the telescope in the
early 17th century. Moreover, on the same night
Jupiter also occulted the 4.9-magnitude compan-

Man's first close-up views of the Martian satellites Deimos (left) and Phobos (right) were obtained
by means of a high resolution teievision camera aboard Mariner 9. Both moons are irregularly shaped:
Ihe dark spot near the bottom of Phobos'is a crater about four mites in diameter.

Ccvr'ry'r, NASA

Astronomy

ion of Beta Scorpii, located 1 4 seconds of arc to its
north. This companion was also occulted by
Jupiter's satellite lo.

The occupations by Jupiter were visible from
South Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. Ex-
peditions were sent from the University of Texas
to monitor photoelectrically the gradual fading of
the stars as they disappeared behind Jupiter’s disk
and their reappearances about an hour later. These
observations gave an accurate determination of
the vertical density gradient in the planet’s atmo-
sphere.

A remarkable phenomenon recorded during the
fading of each star into occulfation was the re-
peated occurrence of short-lived flashes as the star
would momentarily recover to nearly its full bright-
ness. These flashes were conspicuous to visual
observers. The photoelectric records showed that
the same pattern of flashes was observed from
widely separated places on the earth. Astronomers
believe that the flashes are associated with a
layered structure in the Jovian atmosphere. There
are at least three warm layers present at both the
eastern and western edges of Jupiter, apparently
part of a planet-wide pattern of stratification.

One result from the Beta Scorpii occupations
was the most accurate determination yet of the
dimensions of Jupiter. According to the analysis
by W. B. Hubbard and T. C. Van Flandern, the
equatorial radius of the planet is 71 ,880 km (44,565
mi) and the polar radius is 67,500 km (41,850 mi).

The occupation of the companion of Beta Scorpii
by lo was visible about seven hours later from a
limited region in the Caribbean Sea and Florida.
Both the disappearance and reappearance were
sudden, indicating that lo has no appreciable
atmosphere. The radius of the satellite was found
to be 1 ,829 (±3) km. lo, therefore, is about 5% larger
than our moon.

Companion of Sirius. As seen in fairly large tele-
scopes, the bright star Sirius has a much fainter
companion, moving around it in a period of 50
years. This companion, Sirius B, is the most familiar
example of the several thousand white dwarf stars
now known with more or less certainty. These are
tiny, hot stars of extremely high density, compar-
able to the sun in mass but only as large as planets.
Since Sirius B happens to belong to a well-studied
binary star system, its distance from us is reliably
established as 8.7 light-years and its mass as 1.02
times that of the sun.

According to general relativity theory, the spec-
trum of a white dwarf such as Sirius B should show
a red shift as a result of the star’s high surface
gravity. Attempts to measure this gravitational red
shift were made at Mount Wilson Observatory in
the 1920s, when it v;as mistakenly announced that

the prediction was confirmed. But the very difficult
spectroscopic observations were in fact incon-
clusive: the companion’s spectrum was badly
contaminated by the overpowering glare of Sirius
itself, 1 0,000 times brighter and only a few seconds
of arc distant.

Late in 1971 a team of astronomers from Hale
Observatories, Pasadena, Calif., announced that
this problem had finally been overcome. Using the
200-in. Palomar telescope and taking extreme pre-
cautions to avoid stray light from the brilliant
primary star, they managed to obtain the first un-
contaminated spectrograms of Sirius B. These
observations were taken at a time when the com-
panion, in tracing its elongated orbit, was ap-
proaching its maximum angular separation from
the primary star. Analysis of these observations
established that Sirius B is 0.85 the size of the
earth, has a surface temperature of 32,000° K, and
a density 3,000,000 times that of water. By measur-
ing the wavelength displacement of a hydrogen
line in the Sirius B spectrum, the astronomers
found a gravitational red shift of 81 km/sec, agree-
ing well with the predicted value of 83.

Algol as a radio source. At the National Radio
Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank, W. Va., C. M.
Wade and R. M. Hjellming examined various stars
as possible radio sources. (The sun, flare stars, and
a few novas were already known as sources.) As of
early 1972, these astronomers had discovered four
optically "normal” stars that were radio emitters:
the companion of Antares, the star in Cygnus asso-
ciated with the X-ray source Cygnus X-1, Beta
Lyrae, and Beta Persei (Algol).

Discovery of the latter two stars was announced
in February 1972. In both cases, the position of the
source, as measured with a large radio interferom-
eter, agreed so exactly with the known optical
position of the star that no doubt existed as to the
correctness of the identification.

The case of Algol is remarkable. During October
and November 1971, it was detectable as a weak
radio source at wavelengths of 3.7-11 cm. But in
February a new phenomenon appeared: frequent,
strong bursts of radio noise, lasting several hours
or more, occurring at irregular intervals of a few
days. Meanwhile, photographs of the optical spec-
trum of Algol made at David Dunlap Observatory,
Toronto, Can., revealed the unprecedented ap-
pearance of bright lines of calcium and other
elements.

Both of these anomalous observations were
probably connected with the long-known fact that
Algol is a close binary system with a period of
2.8673 days, in which occasional burps of gas are
ejected from the secondary star. Previously, the
most noticeable effect of this gas ejection was to

188

produce minute changes in the period of orbital
revolution. Astronomers believe that an unusually
marked ejection of gas took place in January or
February 1972 and that both the radio bursts and
the optical emission lines originated in this transi-
tory gas cloud.

Future outlook. In the coming year, an eagerly
awaited astronomical event is the total solar
eclipse of June 30, 1973, visible from Africa. It v/ill
be remarkable for the long duration of totality,
more than seven minutes. In late 1972 the Pioneer
10 spacecraft will be traversing the asteroid belt
prior to its flyby of Jupiter in December 1973.
Astronomers hoped that in 1973 the world's largest
reflecting telescope (aperture 236 in.) and largest
radio telescope (a stationary dish nearly 2,000 ft
across) will go info operation at neighboring sites
in the Soviet Union.

—Joseph Ashbrook

See also Year in Review: ASTRONAUTICS AND
SPACE EXPLORATION, Space Probes.

Atmospheric sciences

As in previous years, atmospheric scientists in
many countries were concerned with the same
broad problems. The search continued for new
techniques for making better observations of the
properties of the atmosphere at more places and
at more frequent intervals. Greater attention was
being devoted to the development of indirect
probing techniques to replace the direct sensing
instruments that need to be transported on bal-
loons or aircraft. Various radar, laser, and radio-
metric methods continued to show great promise.

Major efforts were being devoted to scientific
programs aimed at improving the accuracy of
weather forecasts. This was being accomplished by
the development of more realistic mathematical
models of atmospheric phenomena and by the use
of the most advanced electronic computers.

Although progress appeared to be slow, impor-
tant advances were made in the study of weather
and climate modification. The possible ecological,
legal, and other societal consequences of inten-
tional weather modification came under the scru-
tiny of social scientists as well as of the public at
large. On the other side of the coin, inadvertent
effects of human activity on the atmosphere also
were receiving increasing attention. Scientists and
the public were becoming more concerned about
the degree to which environmental pollution may
be affecting the global climate.

Atmospheric sciences in the 'TOs. In 1971 the
Committee on Atmospheric Sciences of the Nation-
al Academy of Sciences issued a report entitled

Courtfly. Dr Roger Cheng, Atmoiphenc Sciencei Reieorch Cenler,
Stole Univeri.ry of New VorV OT Albony

Electron micrograph shows a lead-nucleated ice crystal
lormed by the combustion ol gasoline in the presence
of iodine vapor. Study ol the nucleating particles
could result in new techniques lor cloud seeding.

The Atmospheric Sciences and Man’s Needs. If
briefly notes the progress made in the 1960s and
looks ahead over the next decade. The document
focuses on those aspects of the atmospheric
sciences that can contribute to important human
needs and proposes an ordering of priorities. The
problem areas are v/eather prediction, air quality,
weather and climate modification, and weather
dangers and disasters. The report notes that these
subjects are receiving far from adequate attention.

Greater knowledge in these fields will not only
satisfy the never ending hunger to learn but will
also benefit society enormously in tangible ways.
For example, in the United States alone violent
storms do billions of dollars worth ol damage and
take hundreds of lives each year. In exceptional
years and in other countries, destruction and
deaths greatly exceed even these figures. The
tropical cyclone that hit East Pakistan in November
1970 killed betvreen 200,000 and 300,000 people
and damaged some 400,000 homes. Better ob-
servations of violent storms, improved forecasts,
more effective warnings to the public, and. finally,
the development of techniques to weaken the
storms would thus provide substantial advantages.

Observing the atmosphere. Most observations
of the atmosphere are still made m the traditional
way— using such instruments as ihe.'.momcte.'S,
barometers, anemometers, and radiosondes. Since

189

Atmospheric sciences

the 1950s radar has been used extensively to ob-
serve the location, size, and movement of storms.
The 1960s saw the introduction of earth-orbiting
satellites carrying instruments to observe cloud
cover and measure the radiation emitted and re-
flected from the atmosphere below the satellite.
Beginning in about 1970, various types of infrared
spectrometers on satellites have supplied informa-
tion from which cloud top heights could be esti-
mated and the vertical structure of temperature
and humidity of the atmosphere could be calcu-
lated.

The presence of extensive clouds interferes with
the use of infrared radiometer techniques, but
apparently this difficulty can be overcome by means
of radiometers operating at microwave frequencies.
The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration was planning a Nimbus E meteorological
satellite which would be equipped to make spec-
trometer measurements at both infrared and
microwave frequencies. The satellite was sched-
uled for launching in late 1972 or early 1973, and
shortly thereafter scientists should be able to tell
whether such a combined system can supply
reasonably accurate data on the temperature and
vapor distributions in the lower atmosphere. Some
scientists predicted that these indirect satellite
techniques would make the balloon-borne radio-
sonde as obsolete as the old weather kite, but such
predictions seemed premature.

Progress in the use of microwave radar for ob-
serving clouds and precipitation was slow during

the year. Various promising programs concerned
with the development of new pulsed-Doppler radar
systems did not advance as rapidly as had been
expected. On the other hand, there was enthusi-
astic interest in the use of lidar, i.e., laser radar,
for atmospheric probing. A wide variety of programs
in several countries were developing techniques
for measuring various properties of the atmos-
phere, particularly the sizes and numerical con-
centrations of particulates. An appropriate lidar
can monitor the depth of the polluted layer over a
city. Lasers were also being used to measure the
water vapor content and some of the other gaseous
constituents over an extended horizontal path.

Several scientists, notably Gordon C. Little and
Donald W. Beran and their colleagues at the Wave
Propagation Laboratory of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, did some exciting
work by means of an acoustical echo sounder.
Such an instrument is sometimes called an "acous-
tical radar,” but this is not appropriate because the
term radar implies the use of radio waves. The echo
sounder transmits a sound pulse and detects
sound echoes reflected back from the atmosphere.
The instrument measures a fantastic amount of
detail about the structure of the atmosphere in the
lowest 500 m and sometimes higher. Relatively
small inhomogeneities of temperature, water-vapor
pressure, and wind velocity yield detectable back-
scattered signals. The echo sounder measures
these quantities and allows investigations of low-
level wind patterns, wave motions, and turbulence.

The compounds of sulfur present in the earth's atmosphere have various sources, with man
contributing about haif as much as nature to the totaf. In the figure, XSOt represents sulfates
or sulfuric acid formed by the three-body reaction of SOz with atomic oxygen
and a molecule of either oxygen or nitrogen.

Adopted from SCIENCE, coorleiy, Notlonol Center for Atmoipficric Rejeorch

Mathematical modeling. In some ways, modern
meteorology can be said to have started when
electronic computers were first employed to con-
struct mathematical models of the atmosphere by
numerical methods. Early work in the 1950s dealt

with v/eather over North America. As computers
became bigger, as more was learned about the
interaction of the solid and liquid earth and the
atmosphere, and as better mathematical tech-
niques were evolved, scientists developed models
of the global atmosphere. To a certain extent these
theoretical conceptions outstripped the observa-
tions. Adequate testing of their validity awaited the
collection of worldwide observations. This v/as one
of the major goals of the Global Atmospheric
Research Program (GARP).

In recent years many scientists have been v/ork-
ing on the development of mathematical models of
the global climate. The difficulties involved are
great, but the potential value is tremendous. When
calculating changes in the global weather, each
time step in the computation represents perhaps
10 minutes and the computation is extended for
periods of a few days to a few months. When exam-
ining global climate, however, the computations
extend over periods of hundreds of years. William
Sellers at the University of Arizona used time steps
of one month in his studies of this problem.

if we are ever to understand man's effect on the
worldwide climate and predict what it will be m
the future, much more progress must be made in
the development of such global climate models.
This general problem has been of special interest to
Soviet scientists, particularly M. I. Budyko, director
of the Main Geophysical Observatory in Leningrad
During August 1971 he hosted a meeting of
experts from various parts of the world to exami
the questions involved in climate change.

For a decade a number of scientists have been
working on the development of numerica models
of individual cumulus clouds. Edwin Danielson and
his colleagues at the National Center Atmo-
spheric Research formulated a
a hailstorm that takes into account the evolution
and changes of updrafts and '^a •

lion, it includes the initial
tion, the probability of ice particle
breakup of wafer drops, and the gro^y^lh o* hail
Tnihe past relatively little effort has been devoted
to the mathematical modeling ° , .j

i- havino horizontal oimen

phenomena, that IS. those^a

sions from perhaps 10 Km 1 .hic cfatpment is
meters. A possible exception to this stat'imen

the hurricane, which for several yaars ^
attention of many outstanding ® ^

theless, much more researc 7 „ prgdict-

to develop techniques for mathematically predict

CourlMr. '09'' Ch'iig. Almoiph't.c ScifncM Pelforch Ctn-'f,
Stole Unr^eraity o( New York ot Albotiy

Supercooled water drop emits tiny, positively charged
microdroplets as it freezes; the parent drop retains
a negative charge. This separation mechanism could
possibly generate lightning in storm clouds.

ing the future intensification and path of hurri-
canes. Another mesoscale system that can be
treated numerically is one specifying the air pollu-
tion concentrations over cities. George Cressman,
director of the U.S. National Weather Service,
indicated in December 1971 that new techniques
for this purpose were being considered.

Man's effect on climate. In 1971 the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology Press issued a
volume entitled Inadvertent Climate Modification:
Report of the Study of Man's Impact on Climate.
Familiarly known as the SMIC report, it was a com-
panion to a 1970 MIT volume Man's Impact on the
Global Environment: Study of Critical Environ-
mental Problems (the SCEP report). The new book
is a summary of a conference planned by Carroll L.
Wilson of MIT and held in Sweden during the sum-
mer of 1970. Some 30 scientists from 14 countries
attended. The discussions considered a wide range
of ways by which human activities could aifect the
climate, including changes m atmospheric com-
position; release of energy into the atmosphere;
land-surface alteration; manipulation of surface
and underground waters; vrealher modification;

191

Atmospheric sciences

and the effects of automobiles and aircraft, par-
ticularly supersonic aircraft. The conference made
It clear that much still had to be learned in these
areas.

A subject of more local— but still important —
interest was the effect of large industrialized cities
on the climate of the cities themselves and of the
regions immediately around them. In 1968 Stanley
Changnon of the Illinois State Water Survey re-
ported certain anomalies in the weather records
from stations downwind of Chicago and Gary, Ind.,
particularly in the data from the town of La Porte,
Ind. There was considerable debate over possible
explanations, but the uncertainties might be settled
by a program begun in the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo.,
during the summer of 1971.

The program, called the Metropolitan Meteoro-
logical Experiment or METROMEX, was designed
by scientists from four institutions, including the
Illinois State Water Survey, to investigate changes
in weather caused by urban-industrial effects with
particular attention to changes in rain and snow. A
dense network of observing stations of many kinds
was installed around St. Louis. Starting in 1973,
scientists of the Environmental Protection Agency
would make detailed measurements of the pollu-
tants in the air over St. Louis. The concentration of
contaminants still in the atmosphere downwind of
that city was to be measured by chemists from the
National Center for Atmospheric Research, who
had developed techniques for detecting trace
quantities of various substances.

Weather modification. During the spring and
summer of 1971, the southern states of the U.S.
from Arizona to Florida experienced abnormally
dry weather, and the governors of Florida, Texas,
Arizona, and Oklahoma requested the federal
government to undertake cloud-seeding operations
in an attempt to increase rainfall. Each project
lasted for one month or longer. In every case, rain
did fall, but there appeared to be little concrete
evidence to support claims that it fell because of
the seeding or was increased by the seeding. Eval-
uation procedures were inadequate; the operators
tried to seed the maximum number of clouds that
appeared favorable, and the design of the programs
made it virtually impossible to arrive at a satis-
factory determination of their effects.

The year’s events clearly indicated that the public
and their elected representatives had become more
aware of the potential value of cloud seeding. Most
atmospheric scientists, however, were of the opin-
ion that the technology is not sufficiently advanced
to be used in the uncontrolled way adopted during
the summer of 1971. Except in a few circumstances,
it still had not been adequately demonstrated that
cloud seeding v/ill increase precipitation by sub-

192

stantial amounts. In some seeding programs, in
fact, precipitation apparently was decreased.

Several important experimental cloud-seeding
programs were in progress during the year. Par-
ticularly notable were the so-called San Juan
Project in Colorado, in which the Bureau of Rec-
lamation was evaluating the effects of seeding on
winter snowfalls; a hail modification program being
run by the National Center for Atmospheric Re-
search with support from the National Science
Foundation; and Project Stormfury, which was
concerned with developing techniques for weaken-
ing hurricanes.

Considerable controversy arose around one
cloud-seeding project when it was discovered that
it had taken place near Rapid City, S.D., several
hours before torrential rains caused a devastating
flood in that city early in June. Scientists claimed
that the seeding was done in clouds that were
physically separate from the storm that caused the
flood and that any rainfall it might have added to
the total would have been comparatively light.

The legal, social, and ecological consequences
of weather modification were receiving greater
attention, particularly in the United States. At the
same time, the international aspects of large-scale
weather and climate modification were being
recognized by many nations. The National Academy
of Sciences report on the atmospheric sciences,
acknowledging that weather modification tech-
nology could be used in war as well as peace,
called on the United States "to present for adoption
by the United Nations General Assembly a resolu-
tion dedicating all weather-modification efforts to
peaceful purposes.” Several members of Con-
gress, particularly Sen. Claiborne Pell (Dem., R.I.),
were concerned about the use of weather modifi-
cation techniques in the war in Southeast Asia.
Pell called for a treaty to outlaw such practices.

Global weather programs. Progress on GARP
continued on many fronts. The first global experi-
ment, an attempt to collect detailed observations
of the atmosphere and upper layers of the ocean
over the entire earth, was scheduled to take place
between 1976 and 1980. The data were to be used
to develop a better understanding of the atmo-
sphere up to an altitude of 30 km and in construct-
ing a numerical model to forecast the weather
some 5 to 10 days in advance.

Beginning in 1967, a series of experiments had
been conducted over small oceanic areas. Plans
were in progress for a greatly enlarged experi-
ment, during the summer of 1974, over the tropical
Atlantic in a zone including parts of Central and
South America and Africa and extending from 10’
to 20’ N. Some 25 countries were contributing
ships, airplanes, weather satellites, other equip-

Behavioral sciences

ment, and scientists. The management of the
project v/as in the hands of an international group
of scientists headquartered in Bracknell, Eng. This
program, called the GARP Atlantic Tropical Ex-
periment, would set the stage for expansion of the
research, toward the end of the 1970s. to cover
the entire planet.

—Louis J. Battan

Behavioral sciences

Continuing a trend that had been in evidence for
several years, behavioral scientists turned their
attention more and more toward the application of
their special knowledge to the practical problems
facing society. Anthropologists, taking stock of
their field, placed special stress on problem-
solving. At the same time, psychologists figured
prominently in widely publicized arguments over
the possibility and desirability of behavior con-
trol and over the hypothetical existence of genetic
differences affecting the intellectual capabilities of
various population groups.

Anthropology

The human species is now recognized to be some
two million years beyond its other-primate ances-
try. Its v/hole career is the subject matter of an-
thropology. The species carries with it much of its
long -history: thus it is possible for paleoanthro-
pology and archaeology to make intelligible to
modern man the fragments of prehistory for which
they continually search. In recent years, the
3,000,000,000 humans living today, their problems
and prospects, have also become a major focus of
anthropology.

To understand the basic characteristics of the
species requires disciplined study of the rich

variations in human types and cultures. This has
been the task of anthropology for at least a century
and a half, but accumulation of such knowledge
IS slov/. Moreover, until this generation anthropol-
ogy very largely lacked input from scholars of
other than European cultural traditions, a flaw that
seriously crippled progress in a discipline where
scientists— who are also humans partially blinded
by their own cultural heritages— are the main tools
of cross-cultural research. The body of disciplined
knov/ledge has grown substantially in the past 20
years, but because analysis, publication, and criti-
cism of new field research take time, anthro-
pologists have still been unable to make the con-
tributions required by a v/orld v/hose problems
can only be solved by its people.

In May 1971 the International Union of Anthro-
pological and Ethnological Sciences embarked on
a program to expose, synthesize, and summarize
anthropological knov/ledge at its ninth Inter-
national Congress, scheduled to be held in
Chicago, Aug. 28-Sept. 8. 1973.

In August 1971 anthropologists all over the world
were asked both to propose their ov/n individual
contributions and to suggest symposia and con-
ferences for the congress. By March 1972 over a
thousand responses had been received from 75
different nations. They were studied, collated, and
synthesized by the organizing committee, which
found that they could all be subsumed in four
overlapping sets of major themes.

The first two {comprising 60% of the contribu-
tions suggested) show the knov/ledge that we have
of the species, the first temporally and develop-
menlally, the second geographically. The other
two show the concerns of the disciplines— and
particularly hov/ they acquire knowledge— and the
intersection of anthropological sciences with
problems of the world outside. The v/hole of an-
thropology, as it approaches the last quarter of the

Substandard living conditions,
as in this slum in Bogota.
Colombia, typily the lot ol the
urban poor in many areas ot the
world. Recently, a number ol
anthropologists completed
studies ol the urban poor which
contradict the idea ol a separate
culture ol poverty. In important
areas, notably employment and
lamily lilc, the values ol slum
dv.-cllcrs correspond to
those ol the majority culture,
but behavior dillcrs because ol
the absence ot opportunity
to realize their goals.

Ccv-*-iy C- T*'c— C-yff .T1. L J'
U**

£*reD TfCV

V . i : ■ ■ • ‘55^ = i-I.

‘ Vr-r-T-'''

r.

Courtesy, Transvoel /.loseom

Reconstructed fragmentary skull was recovered from a
limestone quarry at Swartkrans. a fossil-rich site in
South Africa. This skull differs in several respects from
the Paranthropus fossils found at the same site and
has been assigned to the genus Homo.

century, could be summarized in these terms, if
one remembers that there is overlapping at every
point.

Nature and development of man. This first set
of themes looks at humankind from its beginnings,
in all of its interrelated dimensions: 36.8% of
suggested contributions are grouped here, and
others almost equally appropriate are included in
the geographic and methodological groupings.

Body and behavior, the first of three themes
under this heading, encompasses the biological
problems as they are now seen in three over-
lapping groups.

• Man and the primates examines human evolu-
tion both morphologically and behaviorally, as evi-
denced by the study of living and fossil genera.
The age of the hominid family — going back to the
Pliocene and even the Oligocene — requires that
the development of humanness be seen in a con-
text far vTider than that of the anthropoid apes.
Therefore, the search for human ancestry is pushed
further back, and our fossils are compared with
primates other than apes. Nor can v/e now tolerate
any separation of morphology from behavior. Thus,
ethology joins v/ith anatomy and paleontology to
provide understanding of human evolution.

• Paleoanthropology: the Pleistocene. As Homo
developed and differentiated in the Pleistocene,

194

interest shifts from the genus Homo to questions
concerning the species Homo sapiens, and from
"behavior” alone to "culture" and "cultures." The
evidence shifts from the relatively few human
fossils to the important cultural remains. Here,
biological or physical anthropology merges with
archaeology and prehistory.

• Human differentiation. The richness of evi-
dence from the large post-Pleistocene populations,
including the living, permits detailed study of
human variability related to both genetic and
ecological factors. Emphasis shifts, therefore, to
discussion of inheritance and growth within popu-
lations and differentiation of groups in different
environmental circumstances. Here the simple
concept of "race” is falling into disuse. Con-
tinental-historic terms such as Africans, Asians,
and Europeans are replacing "Negroid,” "Mongo-
loid,” and “Caucasoid,” and interest in the classifi-
cation of "races” is giving way to demographic,
ecological, developmental, genetic, physiological,
and medical studies.

Mind and culture encompasses the development
of communications, cognition, and science in
evolutionary perspective.

• Language and thought are interests that com-
bine the skills of linguists, psychologists, philoso-
phers, and a variety of anthropologists. Socio-
linguistics deals with the dialects of social groups
and leads into the problems of education and
"applied linguistics.” Cross-cultural and intensive
studies of cognition involve new problems of con-
ceptual categories as well as nonverbal symbolic
behavior. When and how symbolic communication
began are questions requiring both ethological
perspective and study of the functions of the brain.

• Science, technology, and invention are tradi-
tional anthropological interests that have recently
claimed public attention in the context of "run-
away” technology. Tool making is older than \yas
once thought and is not exclusively human. Recent
evidence indicates that deliberate scientific
thought v/as already well developed during the
Pleistocene, at least in astronomy and mathe-
matics. Anthropology offers new perspectives for
general understanding of this subject, as well as
for recently emerging social problems.

• Sociological innovation and change are not
confined to recent times, and important evidence of
deliberate policy changes among even the smallest
and most isolated human societies is being pro-
vided by field studies. It is apparent that human
societies are rarely passive recipients of change.
Any contrary impression may be an obvious ex-
ample of "colonialist” bias.

Expression in man, also an area of traditional
anthropological interest, can now be treated fully

Behavioral sciences

in empirically verifiable developmental and cross-
cultural perspectives. The first three overlapping
topics under this theme deal with aesthet(cs broad-
ly considered; the fourth with religious and similar
expressions.

• The graphic and plastic arts include all mate-
rial, forms, and color, two and three-dimensional
representations of thought and perception, to
which there is affective response.

• The performing arts, music, dance, and theater,
are viewed as affective behavior as they recreate
human situations to satisfy emotional as well as
intellectual needs.

• Folklore includes oral and written literature,
seen as a body of information encompassing the
study and analysis of myths and legends, fairy tales,
riddles, folktales, and creative storytelling, analyzed
from the viewpoint of aesthetics, psychology, and
anthropology, and in their social and cultural
matrix.

• Ritual, cults, and shamanism include studies
usually associated with religious behavior; mani-
festations of a special type of affective responses
including supernatural beliefs, worship, ritual,
ceremony, and the manipulation of the social and
natural world through esoteric means.

Looking at the world spatially. This emphasis
has a long tradition in anthropology. Twenty-five
percent of all respondents' suggestions are classi-
fied here under seven headings. Each subject
heading includes an area as a whole plus a par-
ticular general problem for which the area is
central.

The circumpolar regions, from the icecap
through tundra and taiga. Special problem; mans
adaptability to new and difficult environments,
including the first peopling of. and dispersion
throughout, the Americas.

The Pacific rim, from Japan and the northern

coasts of mainland Asia through the Aleutians
and Alaska and including the mountains south to
Tierra del Fuego. Two special problems: (1) mari-
time anthropology and man’s relations to the sea;
and (2) communications along a cordillera as com-
pared with cross-relations to the plains on one side
and the sea on the other.

Asian-African hot and cold desert and steppe, a
belt comprising northern and eastern Africa, the
Middle East, and central Asia. Special problem:
the relations between sedentary and nomadic ways
of life in the context of modernization.

The Indian Ocean areas, including the South
Asian plains, the eastern seaboard of southern
Africa, Madagascar, and Southeast Asia through
Malaysia. Special problem: comparative study of
postcolonial "new nations."

China to the Antipodes, including mainland and
Oceanic peoples and cultures. The special problem
contrasts China as a "mother" culture v;ith island
cultures as historic receptors, taking as cases the
Philippines and New Guinea.

Europe. Special problem: urbanization as a
central historic process.

The Atlantic. The two coastal areas (Afro-
European and American) are treated as virtually
separate until a.d. 1500, and then (as the special
problem) as they are brought together by northern
maritime Europeans on both sides of the Atlantic
who developed the international plantation econ-
omy, moved populations from east to west, and led
to the development of a new Afro-American
culture.

Professional concerns. It is characteristic of the
orientation of anthropology that the smallest
number of responses (t'fti) concerned method-
ologies and professional problems.

Theoretical perspectives can be divided into
three sections, the first tv/o of which deal with

The graveyard of the tiny fishing hamlet Guahape on the coast of Peru illustrates a reahty of countless
communities around the\vorld in which the graveyard is then most promment feature. Only seven fam.hes
remain in Guahape, once a thriving port town.

Courtfly, Dr. Thomcj Greovcl, Un^vffllty Wuicum. Unvtnity ol Ptr-iytvo- o

Behavioral sciences

major substantive problems: alternative theoretical
orientations required for the analysis of differences
in economic and sociopolitical development; the
anthropology of complex societies; and current
theories, methods, and techniques of research.

Data storage and retrieval includes bibliog-
raphy, museology, cartography, and— what is
becoming a major interest— visual-aural anthro-
pology, including, especially, the use of sound
motion pictures and television tapes.

The history and future of the anthropological
sciences subsumes means of overcoming cen-
trifugal tendencies caused by increasingly spe-
cialized knowledge; difficulties of communication
across disciplines and across linguistic, cultural,
and national boundaries; and problems of training
and placing professionals and establishing ethical
norms on a worldwide scale.

Social concerns. Some 24.2% of the responses
concerned the social uses of anthropological
knowledge.

Three interrelated problems that affect the whole
of the species, and whose understanding urgently
requires the broadest perspective, are; population
and technological increase on a limited planet;
colonialism, power abuse, and war; and systems
of injustice and discrimination.

An area of major concern involves the fates of
indigenous and minority peoples, as seen through-
out history and today by historians and anthro-
pologists and by the survivors themselves. The
possibility and prospects of cultural pluralism in
the industrial age is a major theme of the congress.

Among the problems of modern life are three
sets of interrelated problems seen in the context
of rapid urbanization: mental and physical illness;
malnutrition; and drugs and stimulants.

Social improvement through anthropological
understanding includes: the study of reproductive
and early childhood behavior basic to the family
and to community mental health, keeping in mind
that child-rearing practices may become more
positive and supportive if they are released from
restrictions based on mistaken rules of supposedly
universal "human nature"; and the need for ed-
ucation based on recognition of cultural and value
differences, and of identification of individuals
with different local, class, and culture groups, so
that supposed "lack of motivation" can be elim-
inated and children and adults freed to fulfill
themselves.

The future of the species as seen in the context
of its entire past is an ultimate goal of the sciences
of man and a general theme for the congress.

—Sol Tax

See also Feature Article; THETASADAY— STONE
AGE TRIBE OF MINDANAO.

Psychology

The quiet, steady progression of research findings
and theoretical understanding in psychology is
ordinarily barely visible except to those most deep-
ly involved, and then not in annual segments, but
only over several years. During the year, however,
several public events, including reviews of the
IQ-race argument and statements advocating
deliberate behavior control, attracted public vigil-
ance and excitement that would not easily be
extinguished.

B. F. Skinner. In his book Beyond Freedom and
Dignity, B. F. Skinner suggests that since almost
all of our major problems involve human behavior,
we should turn to the science of behavior for relief.
Continuing on our present course, without using a
technology of behavior, we will inevitably bypass
solutions to these problems, deny the full potential
of man, and possibly drive mankind to extinction
in the process. Thus he argues that deliberate
behavior management is not only desirable but
also absolutely essential.

Skinner’s primary argument can be summarized
easily. Behavior is controlled in any case; the com-
plex relationships that determine behavior en-
courage what is only an illusion of freedom. And
since behavior is already determined, but in most
cases by poor and unsystematic environmental
arrangements, we should deliberately shape be-
havior that is desirable to all of us. We should
control for the good of man— indeed, for man’s
survival.

Skinner uses considerable space to demonstrate
the varieties of behavior control. He points out
that we tend to generalize and to resist any type of
control because some forms of it are objectionable.
He offers behavior-management procedures that
would be agreeable to any subject and suggests
ways to institute these procedures piecemeal.
Readers are reminded that behavior-management
programs do exist. Many have begun in psycho-
therapy, education, and commerce; they are mul-
tiplying, and their coverage and precision are
increasing. In many ways Skinner is saying that we
should encourage the expansion of behavior-
control programs, and we should also consider
whether they are based on desirable social policy.

Current psychology has dealt with many issues
relating to behavior control, but Skinner widens
the debate and strikes at two seemingly funda-
mental concepts of human nature. In his view, the
primary impediments to large-scale employment of
behavior technology have nothing to do with know-
ledge or cost. Rather, it is suggested that the main
barriers are existing conceptions of individual
freedom and human dignity.

196

Believers in these conceptions maintein that
behavior control v/ould reduce the freedom of any
individual, subjugate him to constraints not pres-
ent nov/, and, by virtue of considering man as a
subject of control, reduce the worth of men, Skin-
ner aroues that the "literature of freedom" arose
to encourage and justify escape from controls
that v/ere seen as oppressive, but that it has grown
to regard any form of control as undesirable, e .
he states, there are alternative kinds of control
involving "positive reinforcement," v/ith which
any man v/ould find himself in happy concordance
■The problem," Skinner says, "is to free men not
from control, but from certain kinds of control.

Skinner does not urge the immediate adoption
of any particular cultural design; rather, he advo-
cates continuous cultural experimentation and
piecemeal adoption of those procedures that prove
to be successful. The effort “is not to esig
world that will be liked by people 2 / they now are
but to design one that will be liked y ^

live in it." Further, there is no implied distinction
between the ruled and ruling classes. ^

design must answer continuously o .

itself: those who control are simultaneo s y

who are controlled. ,,,rtiinn

Kenneth B. Clark. Perhaps even more startl. , 9

v/as Kenneth B. Clark's call, m is P
address to the American Psycho ogi j

tion. for research into a biochemical meansjh^at

would prevent persons positions

their power. "A fev/ men in the le -

in the industrialized nations of the w

the power to determine ^mong ^emselves.

through collaboration or competit •

vival or extinction of human c- m.;; ^

The masses of human beings are ^

live and continue to v/ork ' ' (pgir power

perative. -manv provocative and

Citing what be neurophysiological.

suggestive findings fro , p psycho-

biochemical. psychopharmacolog
logical research/' ^'ark sriOSe Scientific bio-

be on the threshold of ,p stabilize and

chemical intervention v/hi oropensities

make dominant the mora' ^n nega-

of man and subordinate, if
live and primitive behaviora . ^nd
A,.h,„5«C,.,k-s,3™|. POP

differ from those o. j^„,.gs mat

deliberate behavior com currently ava.I-

much of the essentia! i- ’ objections with a

able. Clark anticipated certain o.j-

Behavioral sciences

moral argument. He concluded that moral objec-
tions to psychotechnology because it is manipula-
tive and “will take away from man his natural right
to make errors— even those errors which perpe-
trate cruelties and destruction upon other human
beings, . . . seem mockingly, pathetically im-
moral.”

Professionals reacted quickly to Clark's address.
Researchers in the fields Clark singled out were
quick to suggest that his appeal was much too
simplistic and fantastic. No one denied that con-
siderable behavioral control was now possible,
however, and professionals generally agreed that
ongoing research of the type proposed by Clark
should continue.

Public reaction was even more interesting. Skin-
ner’s book and Clark's speech received immediate
worldwide attention. Time magazine featured Skin-
ner's work in a cover story. Beyond Freedom and
Dignity led nonfiction bestseller lists for several
months and v/as nominated to receive the National
Book Award. Interest was also evident in high
places. Shortly after Clark's speech. Rep. C.
Gallagher (Dem., N.J.) asked the U.S. Genera!
Accounting Office to examine federal funding to
the American Psychological Association to deter-
mine whether federal money was being spent to
implement Clark's proposal. Vice-Pres. Spiro
Agnew spoke of Skinner’s and Clark's thinking
in an address to the Illinois Farm Bureau, calling
it “radical surgery' on the national psyche." (See
Year in Review; SCIENCE. GENERAL.)

IQ again. The ancient heredity-environment con-
troversy was exhumed by A. R. Jensen in 1969,
when he analyzed data on heritability of IQ and
observed differences between groups. Jensen
hypothesized that social class and racial differ-
ences were reflections of significant genetic dif-
, ferences. During the year three reviews of the sub-
ject appeared: a book. The 10 Argument, by H. J.
Eysenck of the University of London; an Atlantic
magazine article by Harvard's R. J. Hermstein; and
a Science magazine article by S. Scarr-Salapatek
from the University of Minnesota. In addition,
American Psychologist carried a debate between
Jensen and D. O. Hebb of McGill University.

Based on available data, the genetic argument
was strong and consistent, but data comparable
to that for the white, middle-class population (on
which the argument was based) were lacking for
lower-class and nonwhite groups. However, in one
series of studies, differing heritability coefficients
for different racial and social-class groups were
obtained by Scarr-Salapatek.

The dilemma, svhich could be resolved only
v.’ith large numbers of measurements, was this:
because IQ is a trait standardized for a population,

198

CcufJesy, Nst'»cnc! lnrt?v*e'S cf

Tk'o female monkeys play independently in contrast to
mates, who prefer contact games. Scientists at the
Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center observed
that gender is equal to or more important than
environment in determining whether the play time of
monkeys involves contact or noncontact sports.

defining the population is critical. A population
definition rests on increasingly restrictive specifi-
cations, particularly those regarding environments.
Within a restricted population, the heritability
factor must necessarily increase, but. given such
restrictions, the meaningfulness and usefulness of
the IQ measure as applied over a more generally
defined population must decrease. Clearly, more
technical expertise was required for public policy
decisions on this issue.

New theory. Experimental and theoretical devel-
opments in human verbal learning and in condi-
tioning and animal learning, long the central areas
of psychology, have progressed largely without
regard to one another. Conditioning research
generally followed the elemental, so-called "stimu-
lus-response” format, while human learning theor-
ists postulated hypothetical cognitive processes.
During the year two conferences, of researchers
in human learning and in conditioning, led to
similar theoretical formulations. Since these areas
give direction to much of psychology, such con-
vergence would have far-reaching consequences.

A conference on conditioning and learning at
North Carolina State University heard suggestions,
particularly from W. K. Estes of Rockefeller Uni-

Botany

varsity, in New York City, for the use of a "coding"
event transpiring between experimenter-arranged
stimulus events and subject-generated responses.
The second conference, sponsored by the U.S.
Office of Education at Woods Hole, Mass., was
specifically devoted to "Coding Processes in
Human Memory."

The notion of a coding event is helpful m both
areas. Consider, for example, the problem of selec-
tive attention. Some subjects choosing between
two complex stimulus arrays will base their choic
only upon certain features of ^be array while
other subjects will choose on ‘be basis o o he
features. Elemental theories suggesting that all the
features have an equal potential or e
response are too simple, while cognitive theor^s
are either ad hoc or vague. A coding event that
refers to specific aspects of the f
determined by experimental
torical variables seems a likely

ponent in the information-processing q •

Major differences exist ' orioinal

graphy of the coding event, however.

Lborations emphasized .behavior m the^^dis^

cussions of coding as mediating theorists

other hand, cognitive and P^^bep^al the^s
generally referred coding to t e ne
Many of their theories used the ea y
coveVy, by physiologists D. H^el and T.^ ^Jiese
at Harvard, of single neurons 'n |be r ^

tex that are excited by changes in j n,a,jon,
aspects of visual stimuli (angular orientat.o

direction of movement, size etcj^ .iniversity, Chi-
Recently N. Weisstein of bey college, also in
cago, and J. Bisaha of Mun e which

Chicago, obtained ^ ^nd visual item is

the apparent contrast for a
reduced by prior sewing groups of

This suggests an analysis ^ologists

neurons. Their work is 'n'ores i 9 g

because the more complex t , -g converge

response analysis and a neural analysis

_DanielJohnson

see a/so Feature Article: THE PSYCHIC BOOM.

plexity governs the relationships betv/een green
plants and their environment. One of the most
surprising developments was the establishment
of the importance of ion movements in setting up
action potentials in plants, movements similar to
those long known in the nervous systems of

animals. . . ....

Recycling of atmospheric ammonia by higher
plants. Nitrogen constitutes about four-fifths of
the atmosphere but. although it is an important
component of the ammo acids that make up al
proteins, green plants cannot use it directly rom
the atmosphere and animals must obtain it from
higher plants in the form of organic molecules.
The process of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen is
controlled mainly by a series of microorganisrns
that occur either free-living in the sod or in the
nodules on the roots of legumes, such as clover
and soybeans, the plants often grown to enrich
the nitrogen content of soil depleted by other

plants.

stoma of a cucumber leal ,s flanked by guard cells,
which control the movement of water and carbon dioxide
between the exterior and interior of the teal During the
ylTscientists discovered that the guard cells are open
only when they have a high concentration
of potassium ions.

Botany

g-1-72

Major trends in plant various inter-

provided better smnd-ng^

actions between of molecular move-

ened perspective on the organization

ment in and between p ^ „d more complex

o. cell, continued >» '«7

as it was better und^toco
learning more about t

Botany

Most of the ammonia (ammonium ion) in the
atmosphere or in the soil is there as a result of
organic decay— the breakdown of proteins and
amino acids. In the traditional nitrogen cycle, the
ammonia is considered to be oxidized to nitrites
by the bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus:
the nitrites are in turn oxidized to nitrates by the
bacteria Nitrobacter. These nitrates can then be
taken in by green plants and used in the synthesis
of organic molecules.

In early 1972, however, a group of researchers
showed that growing plants could satisfy about
10% of their nitrogen requirements by absorbing
ammonia, which is a compound of nitrogen and
hydrogen, directly from the atmosphere through
the leaves. This discovery might be of considerable
importance in explaining the balance between
plants and their environment, particularly under
polluted conditions where ammonia may be
abundant.

Following root growth. Work by J. Waddington
of the Canada Agricultural Research Station in
Saskatchewan resulted in the development of a
periscope for observing the growth of roots. All of
the commonly used techniques had involved con-
siderable disturbance to the roots or the applica-
tion of radioactive traces that constituted potential
radiation hazards. In Waddington's method, trans-
parent glass or plastic tubes could be inserted in
the soil near a plant and an inverted periscope
constructed with one element transmitting light
down to the roots and another transferring the
image back to a viewing eyepiece. The whole sys-
tem could be accommodated in a tube about
2.5 cm in diameter and would cause very little
disturbance to the plant when left in place over a
period of time. The method could permit observa-
tions of patterns of root growth far superior to
those possible with any previous method and might
provide better knowledge of the relationship be-
tween roots and the soil, which would be important
for agriculture as well as for theoretical botany.

Plant-animal interactions. As the scope of stud-
ies into the relationship between green plants and
insects and other animals broadened, plants were
discovered to employ a surprising variety of meth-
ods to ward off predators. Many plants manufacture
molecules of alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, cya-
nide, mustard oils, and the like, which inhibit feed-
ing by most insects. Some of the relatively few
insects that are able to feed on these "protected”
plants retain these molecules and use them as a
defense against their own predators. A familiar
example is that of the orange-and-black monarch
butterfly [Danaus plexippus), which is highly dis-
tasteful to birds because it retains cardiac gly-
cosides it took up as a caterpillar from milkweed

plants. The viceroy (Limenitis archippus) resembles
the monarch so closely that it too is avoided by
birds, even though it is not distasteful because its
larvae did not feed on milkweed.

Some plant defenses were found to be, or were
suspected of being, more subtle. Some ferns and
gymnosperms, for example, have molecules that
resemble ecdysone, the insect molting hormone,
which might cause disturbances in the develop-
ment of the insects that feed on them. Certain bark
beetles and bees utilize substances they derive
from plants as their own sex attractants. Many of
the hairs and spines on plants might constitute
almost impenetrable barriers to small insects, and
also might regulate water loss from the leaves.

During World War 11, in an attempt to discover
why bracken fern (Pteridium aquiUnum) was not
eaten by cattle and sheep, it was found that the
plant contained substances that inhibit the syn-
thesis of thiamine. Perhaps this also explained why
bracken and other ferns are rarely eaten by insects
and other herbivores. Recently it was shown that
when the leaves of tomato or potato plants are
wounded by insect attack, they rapidly accumulate
a substance that inhibits digestive enzymes (pro-
teinases). Such wound reactions of plants might
eventually be found to discourage insect attack,
a role that might have important implications for
agriculture.

The meaning of flower colors. Recent observa-
tions helped to explain why flowers visited for food
by hummingbirds and other birds are most fre-
quently red. The energy consumed by a humming-
bird hovering at a flower is some 600 times that
used by a bumblebee crawling over a cluster of
lilac blossoms. Hummingbirds and other animals
with high energy requirements, such as hawk-
moths, must largely confine their visits to flowers
that produce nectar abundant enough and rich
enough in sugar to support them. Insects with
lower energy requirements will also visit flowers
that produce abundant nectar, but they will not
normally move from plant to plant and their visits
will not result in cross-pollination. The plant that
produces enough nectar to support repeated visits
by hummingbirds must, therefore, "protect" its
nectar from these insects.

The plant appears to accomplish this in three
ways. First, its flowers are generally strong and
tubular and the nectar is secreted at the base, so
that only an animal with a long tongue or beak can
reach it. Second, the flowers are odorless. Birds,
like men, orient largely by sight, while insects often
orient by odor, especially at a distance. Third, the
flowers are often red. Although insects are known
to detect wavelengths in the ultraviolet that are not
visible to men or birds, red, to them, fades into the

200

Botany

Eorboro Panessa, tlev, York Un.versir/

• . i

^ /j ^ v’-'vOn. ‘ ‘i- .

k Y y

I

, ‘

•■■■ ji fe: - I^ntacles through which digestion ol

Scanning electron micrographs of a may prove valuable in further studies of the

trapped insects takes place (close-up at right)

role of electrical energy in plant behavior „

background of green ‘^owS^in

blind person. There are P . visiting birds.

Europe, where flowers in the

In contrast, the distributio American spe-

Americas, where 84 % of the o
cies known to be bird-pollmated are^.J^^V
depend on the annual ' ,3 one of the

Control mechanisms ^ ,any was the

most striking developments ^^^^^33153,3 con-
growing understanding o

trolling the movement o' ® of leaves,

betv/een the exterior an . ^ ^ampounds from
Water and carbon dioxide are ^juring photo-

whlct, organic compounas a-
synthesis. A thin cutic vital

faces largely continuously from the

molecules. Water must p ,he stems, and

soil into the roots. ,here is no mecha-

out through the leaves. continuation ol plant
nism for recirculating ' nee of this flow,

life depends upon ^ pand. must enter the

Carbon dioxide, on the o'P ^ ,he atmo-

green parts of the p an open-

sphere. It does ,ar: stoma), that permit

ings. called stomata (smguia

the escape of . -jp g pair of specialized

Each stoma is flanked ["^j^^|os,ead of being
cells called guard cells. surface,

flat and tablet-shaped gpaped and thick-

or epidermal, cells, are rnargins. When

ened on ridges cr subject to high inter-

the guard cells are u margins spring out-

nal water pressure. another and the stoma

ward in opposition to one

is open. When they are flaccid, or the v/ater pres
sure^is low, the inner margins relax and come o-
qether. In many plants additional specialized cells,
L subsidiary cells, are arranged in smaU groups
of definite position around the guard cells.

Stomata are often very numerous: there are
12 000 per sq cm on tobacco leaves. In some plants
bey are confined only to the upper or lower sur-
ace of a leaf, while in others they are on both. The
strata are connected directly with a honeycomb
of air spaces within the leaf that sometimes rnakes
up neady half of the total volume of the leaf. The
aii in thise spaces is saturated with water evapo-
rated from the damp surfaces of 'f ®

Sus Within these cells are the chloroplasts in
which photosynthesis occurs. For a plant to con-
tinue to live, the flow of water from its leaves and
the passage of carbon dioxide into the leaves must
be regulated. Under drought conditions, the lov/
water pressure in the leaves often causes the
stomata to close. This reduces access to carbon
dioxide, and photosynthesis may be very ''mi'cd.

The strides made during the year, however, dealt
with influences other than drought on the rcgula-
ion of the stomata. The stomata of many plant
soecies were known to close regularly in the eve-
ning and open in the morning, even when the
supply of water to the plant was constant, pre-
sumaU because of an increase m carbon dioxide
concentration around the plant. It was shown tha,
when stomata are open, the guard cells have high
conccntrationsof potassium ,on (K-) and that v^cn
they are dosed, most of the potassium ions have
moved out into the subsidiary cells or into other

20t

Botany

cells of the leaf. The changes in concentration
were sufficiently large to account for other changes
associated with the opening of the stomata. Nor-
mal opening and closing of the stomata were found
to be possible only when the guard cells were
attached to the other cells of the leaf or when they
floated in a solution containing potassium ions.
In darkness, air containing carbon dioxide appar-
ently inhibits the accumulation of potassium ions
in guard cells, and thus the stomata do not open.

The ability of stomata to open and close rapidly
in response to environmentai stimuli is essential
to good plant growth, and botanists were consider-
ing possible mechanisms whereby the movement
of potassium ions might be controlled. Guard cells
in higher plants also clearly can take up ions of
potassium with a much greater degree of specificity
than had been suspected. The way this specificity
is controlled was also expected to be studied fur-
ther, since the considerable degree of specificity
found in the movement of ions from the soil into
the plant roots remained one of the unsolved ques-
tions of botanical science.

Electrical signals in plants. As early as 1880, it
was known that a leaf of Venus's flytrap {Dionaea
muscipula) conducts “action potentials" when
certain specialized hairs protruding from its sur-
face are touched by an insect. Following the pas-
sage of two or more action potentials, the two lobes
of the leaf fold together rapidly. If the insect is
trapped, small glands secrete digestive enzymes
that reduce the hapless creature to its biochemical

Leaves of Venus's flytrap conduct "action potentials"
and close rapidly when hairs on their surfaces are
touched by an insect. Scientists are currently studying
other factors that stimulate electrical signals in plants
as well as the roles played by such signals.

Pun (torn Photo Ptti-orthort

building blocks, which are rapidly absorbed for the
nutrition of the plant. These action potentials,
which seemed to be very similar in origin and func-
tion to those of animal nerve cells, were long re-
garded by botanists as freaks of evolution, even
though similar action potentials were discovered
to mediate the rapid closing of leaves of the sensi-
tive plant Mimosa pudica. To some botanists, how-
ever, it seemed that such specialized behavior
could not have arisen de novo in these peculiar
plants, so they looked for electrical signals of a
less conspicuous nature under more ordinary
circumstances. As a result of their investigations,
it appeared that action potentials might be wide-
spread in the plant world, communicating informa-
tion about the state of the plant’s cells or about the
external environment.

It was reported, for example, that when pollen
lands on the surface of the female part of a lily
flower, an action potential passes into the hidden
region of the flower where the egg is waiting to be
fertilized. The action potential may trigger final
stages in the development of the female tissue that
aid in the passage of the sperm to the egg and
might even aid fertilization itself. In certain families,
the female parts of the flower play an active role
in securing pollen. The touch of an insect on the
stigmatic surface of the female part triggers an
action potential that causes the lobes of the stigma
to fold around the insect. The insect usually es-
capes, but any pollen on its body is brushed off and
held tightly between the lobes, which form a little
chamber within which the pollen develops further.
A second action potential then passes to the region
of the egg in the ordinary fashion.

When a young seedling, such as that of the gar-
den pea, struggles to emerge from the soil, it is
aided by a special sensory system that enables it to
judge the depth and compaction of the overlying
soil. The detailed mechanism of the system was
not understood, but it was clear that when the sur-
face of the stem (technically, of the epicotyl) is
rubbed, as by particles of soil, voltage fluctuations
that resemble action potentials can be observed
almost immediately and continue for some time.
A hormone is soon released that causes the plant
to develop a stouter stem and keeps the tiny leaves
folded over tightly in a bud that will not suffer
abrasion as the plant pushes through the soil.
When the plant nears the surface, friction betv/een
soil particles and the stem diminishes, the voltage
fluctuations cease, the release of the hormone de-
creases, the stem puts on a burst of elongation, the
bud unfolds, and the leaves expand in preparation
for photosynthesis.

More mysteriously, a variety of spontaneous sig-
nals of unknown function were detected when

electrodes were applied to the green parts of such
plants as the morning glory, garden pea. and
cocklebur. These signals sometimes occurred in
trains of variable duration. The individual signals
might be very brief and rapid m sequence, or they
might be longer and separated by fairly long inter-
vals. Isolated individual signals of more erratic
character were observed in mushrooms as well as
in green plants.

Scientists werb trying to learn more about the
factors that trigger electrical activity in plants and
about the role of electrical signals in plant be-
havior. A carnivorous plant might well play an
important part in these studies. The sundew
(Drosera) was found not only to have action poten-
tials like those of animal nerves but also to have
receptor potentials resembling those of animal
receptor organs. Because this versatile plant has
cells that are comparatively easy to see and to
impale with electrodes, it was thought to be par-
ticularly suitable for detailed comparisons of the
electrical activity of plants and animals.

—Peter H. Raven

Courrfjy IflDUSTBIAl PESfAPCH

Chemistry

Advances during the year in chemistry ranged from
success in limiting the lifetime of plastics to the
recording of the two millionth unique chemical
structure. Beam collision techniques were used
effectively to help discover the nature of chemical
reactions, while liquid-liquid chromatography
helped determine chemical structures.

Applied chemistry

"Energy Crisis" was added firmly to the list of pub-
lic concerns during the past year, and chemists
and chemical engineers responded by intensifying
their efforts to improve the creation of synthetic
natural gas from naphtha and coal. They also sug-
gested hydrogen as a universal fuel, supplement-
ing both fossil fuels and nuclear energy. A success-
ful effort at reducing the persistence of pesticide
molecules in the biological environment was also
reported.

Chemistry in the furnace. About one-third of
U.S. energy needs in 1972 were met by natural
gas, a remarkable statistic considering that until
the end of World War II this fuel was simply flared
as a necessary waste in the production of oil. The
energy demands of the postwar suburban boom,
coupled with the invention of the seamless welded
pipeline that made possible long-distance trans-
mission at high pressures, produced natural gas'
explosive growth, about 6'= a year since 19o0.

■’tVe should have a reaction in about 36 hours Call
me when it happens "

During the past year, various indications—gas
companies cutting back or simply eliminating nev;
orders of gas, for instance— made it evident that
shortages of natural gas were developing in the
United States. The reasons for the shortage in-
cluded not only an actual decrease in the supply
but also the pricing policies of the Federal Power
Commission (FPC) and the apparent reluctance of
the gas companies to search out new deposits.
There did appear to be ample supplies of natural
gas for the next two to three decades if the predic-
tions of the Potential Gas Committee are borne
out. The committee estimated proved reserves of
natural gas at 260 trillion cu ft (the U.S. now uses
about 23 trillion cu ft annually), and potential
reserves at 1.178 trillion cu ft. Given the exponen-
tial increase in overall energy consumption— a
doubling about every 10 years— this meant that the
proved reserves would last for 13 years and the
potential reserves for 20.

The combination of these limitations on natural
gas supplies and a more favorable FPC pricing
policy spurred the gas companies into a greater
technical effort to make a gas from coal and
naphtha (a light hydrocarbon fraction of crude oil)
that will bo compatible with natural gas. More than
a doren com.panics recently announced plans to
make synthetic natural gas (St.'G) from naphtha,
while several more planned to make SMG from
coal. To the consumer the effect of this vnll be
higher gas prices, perhaps t.vp to three times

233

Chemistry

Heterofil bond is formed when a
web containing normal libers
and bicomponent fibers, a fiber
with a high melting core and a
sheath of a low melting polymer,
is heated. The resulting fabric is
called a melded fabric.

Courtesy, ICI Fibres Ltd.

above current levels, although the blending of
natural with synthetic will somewhat mitigate the
price increase.

For scientists and engineers, the effort to create
SNG compatible with natural gas creates intense
technical pressures. While synthetic gas is not new

town gas made from coal was the chief heat and

light fuel in the 19th century— it is quite something
else to make a synthetic product as good in its
heating qualities and as free of contaminants as
natural gas. Town gas, made by simply heating
coal, has a heating capacity of about 500 British
Thermal Units (BTUs), while natural gas is about
twice that, about 1,000 BTUs.

Work on creating SNG from naphtha was well
underway in 1972, spurred largely by the initial
efforts of the British Gas Council. The largest
venture to be announced by mid-year was a 500
million-cu-ft-per-day plant to be built in New Jersey
in 1973 jointly by Texas Eastern Transmission Corp.
and Consolidated Natural Gas Co. The effort to
create SNG from coal is a bit behind naphtha; most
experts predict 1977-80 as the time for commercial
coal gasification in the U.S. However, in April 1972,
the Continental Oil Co., British Gas Council, and
Scottish Gas Council jointly announced plans to
upgrade an existing coal gasification facility in
Scotland to the point where it will produce a gas
with the heating capacity and purity of natural gas.

Natural gas is almost exclusively one hydro-
carbon, methane (CH 4 ), and the successful creation

[ SNG consists of converting economically a mix-
ire of many hydrocarbons into methane. The
roblems are particularly difficult for coal: the
ydrogen content is too low and must be up-
raded; it must be properly pretreated to avoid
;aking problems that delayed the start-up of one
lasification plant this year; and, there are a host
)f impurities, including sulfur, that must be r

The fuel to be gasified— be it coal or naphtha
s reacted under pressure with air and steam.
Droduct is "synthesis gas," a variable fixture of
Darbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane carbon d
oxide, and sulfur impurities. A properly catalyzed
"shift reaction"

CO -f H2O >• COa -t- H2

brings hydrogen and carbon monoxide into proper
balance for the subsequent methanation reac

CO -f 3H2 > H2O +

Methanation, while successful in the laboratory,
has not yet been proven commercially. Ho •
it is necessary if several gasification schemes no
proposed are to produce useable SNG. , •

Coal, as suggested earlier. Presents som
dable technical problems as a source of S ■
ever, technical experts are optimistic l^a
problems can be resolved. Coal, that is,

(C), is gasified when it reacts with steam ( 2
air (O 2 ) at about 1,800° F:

204

Chemistr>'

(1) C + O 2 > CO 2

( 2 ) C + H2O « CO - H2

(3) C 2 H 2 > CH 4

The heat required for these gasification reactions
makes them expensive steps m the coal-to-gas
process. Heat is supplied in various ways depend-
ing on the process: electrical energy, burning of
coal, reaction of carbon monoxide v/ith metal
oxides, reaction of lime (CaO) v/ith carbon dioxide.

In addition, coal contains various impurities—
a typical chemical formula for coal (Illinois #6) is
C11H85S2N1.5O9.5— that must be removed. Sulfur
is taken out as hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen as am-
monia, and oxygen as v/ater.

In 1972 there were about 60 coal gasification
plants operating in Europe (none in the U.S.). All
were based on the Lurgi Process, which helped
keep Germany supplied v^ith synthetic fuels during
World War II. It is questionable, because of caking
problems, whether bituminous coals found abun-
dantly in the eastern part of the U.S. are suitable for
the Lurgi process. However, at least three U.S.
plants using the Lurgi process were announced.

There were several new approaches to coal
gasification on the planning boards in 1972. The
most advanced, in terms of reaching actual pro-
duction, v/as the Institute of Gas Technology's
HYGAS Process. In this process, hot hydrogen re-
acts v/ilh a mixture of coal and oil in a hydro-
gasifier. The methane formed is enriched by a sub-
sequent reaction betv/een carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. A HYGAS plant was scheduled in Oc-
tober to start producing about 2 million cu ft per
day of synthetic gas from lignite (brown coal) or
midv/estern coal.

The M. W. Kellogg Company's molten salt
process may prove the most versatile, both in the
kind of fuels it can gasify (ranging from coal to gar-
bage) and in its ability to handle both caking and
noncaking coals. The coal is suspended in molten
sodium carbonate, which also catalyzes the forma-
tion of methane in the gasification steps. One ad-
vantage of the molten salt approach, carried out
under pressures of 1,200 pounds per square inch,
is that combustion can be separated from the syn-
thesis gas. eliminating the need to remove sulfur,
carbon oxides, and other impurities.

Hydrogen as a fuel. While coal gasification
neared the production stage, energy experts v.ere
also seriously considering another energy source
— hydrogen gas. At a national meeting of the
American Chemical Society in April 1972. several
speakers considered the prospects for a hydrogen
economy" in which hydrogen would be used as a
universal fuel, that is, as an alternative to boih
nuclear power and fossil fuels, natural orsyntheuv-

Hydrogen fuel has several immediate advantages:
it can be made from water, burns easily, is trans-
portable through already existing gas pipelines,
and, when burned, leaves only one "ash"— water.
Moreover, unlike electricity, which must be made
on demand, hydrogen gas can be stored.

The first basic step in developing a hydrogen
economy is to use nuclear power to break down
water, either electrolytically or by thermal crack-
ing— heating to very high temperatures. How-
ever. electrolysis of water to hydrogen and oxygen
IS a relatively expensive and somewhat inefficient
process. Direct thermal breakdown v/ould require
temperatures higher than fission (but not fusion)
reactors could achieve. However, Cesare Marchetti
and G. De Beni of the European Atomic Energy
Community proposed a four-step process to make
hydrogen that involved a series of recycled chemi-
cal intermediates in which the highest tempera-
tures reached would be about 1 ,350 F. Some prob-
lems might arise v/ith this, including possible loss
of mercury (one of the chemicals involved) to the
environment, corrosive intermediate materials,
and an overall efficiency about the same or below
that of electrolysis.

The architecture of pesticides. The past de-
cades of organic chemistry were marked by the
analysis of the structures and subsequent syn-
theses of often quite complex molecules. By 1972
the emphasis was on coupling the ability to syn-
thesize with the grov/ing knowledge of how chemi-
cals act in living systems, including the human
body. The result was molecular architecture;
chemicals designed for specific biological applica-
tions. One example of molecular architecture of
particular satisfaction to environmentalists was
provided in the February 1972 issue of Chemical
Tcchnologyby Robert L. Metcalf and hiscolleagues
at the University of Illinois. They designed analogs,
or chemically similar materials, to DDT that are
reportedly as effective as that insecticide but much
more readily broken down by living systems, that
is, more biodegradable.

DDT, and its even more stable metabolite DDE.
do not break down easily, and this has boon blamed
for the accumulation of these pesticides in fishes
and for the reproductive failures of a variety of
birds such as the Bermuda petrel. The basic prob-
lem, as Metcalf pointed out, is that both DDT and
DDE dissolve much more readily in fat than m
water. The consequence is that DDT (or DDE) is
poorly excreted and instead accumulates in fatty
tissues of fishes, birds, and man. The reason DDT
is not bro'>:cn down in the body to v.-ater-solubfe
products is that enzymes, biotog-cal catal>-sts,
cannot attack a certam portion of the DDT mote-
cute. Accord'ngty, working from clues supplied

205

Chemistry

by a much more biodegradable, if less effective,
pesticide called methoxychlor, Metcalf and his
colleagues prepared a host of DDT-like com-
pounds in which the enzyme-resistant portions
were replaced by other chemical groupings.

The result, reported Metcalf, was a variety of
compounds readily biodegradable but just as ef-
fective as DDT. In some cases, these products of
molecular architecture were even more effective:
for example, one designed compound proved ef-
fective against a strain of DDT-resistant house-
flies.

—Norman Metzger

Chemical dynamics

Research in chemical dynamics continued to try to
shed light on the questions as to how chemical re-
actions occur, what forces drive them, and what
factors determine their rates. Traditionally, the
processes involving chemical change have been
studied by mixing reactants in the gas phase or in
solution and then monitoring the products pro-
duced as a function of time. The energy of the reac-
tants was varied by varying the temperature. In
such a system the reactants have a spread of kine-
tic energies corresponding to their thermal dis-
tribution. One is limited in the energy range one
can cover, and if solutions are involved the matter
rpay be further complicated by effects of the sol-
vents. In order to avoid some of these complica-
tions, chemists began to use the so-called beam
techniques, in which a beam of ionic or neutral
reactants with a narrow spread in kinetic energy
is made to collide with the target gas molecules. In
such a reaction one studies the energies, the iden-
tity, and the angular distribution of the products
resulting from a collision between projectile
and target.

Beam collision techniques. A diagram of a spec-
trometer used for such studies is shown in figure 1.
Ions (charged atoms) are produced in the input

mass spectrometer by the electron bombardment
of a suitable gas. The ions so produced are then
retarded or accelerated to a desired energy and
focused into a reaction chamber containing Dz.
The ionic species (C+ and CD+) that come out of
the reaction chamber have their energies deter-
mined by the energy analyzer and their identity
established by the analyzing mass spectrometer.
The ions are then detected by a sensitive detector
such as an electron multiplier. An ion-molecule
reaction is used here to illustrate this technique
since ions can be accelerated, decelerated, and fo-
cused. Consequently, they are easier to work with
than projectiles without a charge. Similar experi-
ments, however, can be and are being carried out
for reactions where both target and projectile are
neutral.

When ions are produced by electron bombard-
ment, they are frequently electronically excited;
that is, their internal electrons are displaced from
their most stable positions. Likewise, a similar
situation may exist when an ion reacts with a mole-
cule and produces an ionic product. This product
may be electronically excited, or its nuclei may be
vibrating more violently than normal (vibrational
excitation), or the product may be rotating more
rapidly than in its lowest rotational energy state
(rotational excitation). Quantum mechanics tells
us that these states of excitation are characterized
by discrete energies called energy levels. In gen-
eral, the differences between electronic energy
levels are larger than the differences between vi-
brational energy levels, which in turn are lafger
than the rotational energy level spacings. In a
chemical reaction ideally one would Hke to know
the kinetic, electronic, vibrational, and rotational
energies of all the species involved in the reaction.
This has been accomplished in only a few favorable
cases such as the reactions of deuterium atorns
with diatomic halogen molecules in which the vari-
ous states can be determined by the light emitted
during the course of reaction.

Figure 1. Ir} the beam techniques for studying chemical changes, ions are produced in the input mass
spectrometer , focused into the reaction chamber, and, after coming out, analyzed by various instruments.

Chemistry

A technique was recently developed for deter-
mining how many and what electronic states are
present in a projectile ion beam produced by elec-
tron bombardment. The ion beam is passed
through a chamber containing a suitable gas, the
pressure of which can be varied m a quantitative
manner. By measuring the diminution in intensity
of the ion beam as a function of gas pressure, one
can determine if the ions are in a single elec-
tronically excited state; if there is more than one
electronic state, the fractions of various states
present can be evaluated. By studying these frac-
tional abundances as a function of the electron
bombarding energy one can determine which elec-
tronic states are present. If an ion in an electron-
ically excited state makes a sufficient number of
collisions with other gas molecules, it loses its
excitation energy and goes into its lowest (ground)
state. Using this technique, scientists studied a
number of ion-molecule reactions with the projec-
tile ions in their ground electronic state; and by
comparing the reactions produced by a projectile
beam of ions in mixed electronic states, the roie of
both the ground eiectronic state and the excited
states could be determined. In the near future one
can expect application of these techniques to the
identification of states of the product ions.

Another more elegant method of state selection
that has been used is photoionization. In this tech-
nique one irradiates a molecule such as Ha with
a beam of light with a very narrow energy spread
but of sufficient energy so that ionization of the
molecule occurs. The molecule then can be put
into not only a desired vibrational but also into a
selected rotational state. This type of refined state
selection permits one to investigate the roles that
vibrational and rotational energy play in chemical
reactions.

A fascinating development is the obsers'ation
that beam techniques can readily produce rather
large ion clusters that are of sufficient stability
so that their properties and reactions can be
studied in the gas phase. Several studies were re-
ported on ion clusters as H'(H 20 )„, NH 4 '(NH 3 )„,
and others. A number of solvated (containing sol-
vent and solute) clusters of both positive and nega-
tive ions were reported. In the case of ammonia
clusters as many as 20 ammonia molecules were
found associated with the NKi* ion. These clusters
are not just academic oddities. Such solvated ions
will probably be found to play a significant role in
pollution problems and in the nature of structured
water in biological systems.

Studies of the reactions of ion clusters are just
beginning; and before quantitative studies can be
realized the properties of the excited states of such
ions will have to be investigated. Probably the most

fascinating implications of these studies is that
they will permit the bridging between gas phase
and solution chemistry. Chemists for a number of
decades have been accustomed to assuming the
existence of species such as H'(H 20 )_^ in explain-
ing the migration of ions in solutions, rates of reac-
tions, electrical conductivity of ionic solutions, etc.
By 1972 it had become possible to examine the
various properties of such species on a molecular
basis. This will undoubtedly prove to be a fruitful
area for the study not only of aqueous solutions but
also of solutions of various organic and inorganic
systems.

Reactions of three-atom systems. During the
past year, investigators continued to report results
on the angular and energy distribution for products
of relatively simple ion-molecule and neutral-
neutral reactions represented by the equation A -f
BC -* AB -f- C. Depending on the shape of the angu-
lar distribution (the distribution in angle, relative
to a specified direction, of the intensity of particles
resulting from a reaction), the reaction forms a
persistent complex or proceeds by some type of
direct mechanism. An example of a complex for-
mation may be a case where A and BC on collision
interact with each other for a period of about lO-’z
seconds and then dissociate into products AB -f C.
An extreme example of a direct mechanism is one
in which A on moving past BC picks up B to form
AB, leaving C behind without any momentum im-
parted to it. In such a case A may spend a rela-
tively shorter time (less than 10"'^ sec) in the
region of BC.

Some investigators believed that the condition
necessary for persistent complex formation is a
potential "well" in the ABC system that is avail-

Figure 2. In a schematic of a potential well, reactants
overcome a potential barrier (slight rise at Icit) before
forming intermediate complex at lower energy. Energy
barrier at right is surmounted to lorm final products.

reaci'en ccc-cf-’

Chemistry

able to the reactants— access is not forbidden by
spin, symmetry, or other restrictions. Under such
a condition persistent complex formation can be
expected if the relative kinetic energy is low
enough. Persistent complex formation was ob-
serv'ed in sample reactions such as Oz~ -r Da — >
DOa' - D; and — Da — >■ CD* 4- D. As the projec-
tile kinetic energies are increased in these reac-
tions, a direct mechanism comes into operation.

A schematic potential well, which may represent
the situation in an endothermic reaction such as
C* -r Da CD* -f D, is shown in figure 2, In the
left-hand side of the diagram, as the projectile ap-
proaches the target, it may have to overcome a
small potential barrier (the slight rise): but as it
gets closer to the target, the potential energy falls
strongly. This represents a strong attraction be-
tween the reactants, and a complex possibly such

C*

/ \

as D D is formed. The kinetic energy of the
projectile has been converted in part to vibra-
tional and rotational energy of the complex. The
smaller this energy is relative to the depth of the
well the longer the complex lives.

After going through a series of internal oscilla-
tions, the system surmounts the barrier on the
right-hand side of the figure and the products
CD* — D are formed. The line on the right repre-
senting the products is higher than the line on the
left that represents the reactants because the
reaction is endothermic and requires a certain
amount of energy in order to be able to proceed
to the final products.

It is clear that much remains to be done before a
thorough understanding of these three-atom sys-
tems is realized. The role not only of kinetic energy
but also of vibrational and rotational energy as
driving forces in chemical reactions vrill have to be
investigated.

Future outlook. The immediate future outlook for
the area of chemical dynamics is bright except for
reduced funding for basic research. With the in-
creased availability of tunable lasers and sensitive,
high-resolution optical spectroscopic systems,
scientists can expect more work on state selection
of reactants and the determination of the states of
the reaction products. By irradiating suitable tar-
get gases with the proper frequency of light ob-
tained from a laser, one will be able to put a target
molecule into a particular desired state. The high-
resolution optical spectrometers will permit the
analysis of light emitted by the product; and in
favorable cases, the electronic, vibrational, and
rotational states, as well as the geometry of the
product, will be determined. This v/ill lead to a
deeper understanding of the role of kinetic, vibra-

tional, and rotational energies as driving forces of
chemical reactions.

In the coming years, work on solvated ions in the
gas phase is expected to increase our understand-
ing of the properties of these ions and, it is hoped,
bring us closer to bridging the gap between gas
phase reactions and reactions in solution. The
question of persistent complex formation v. direct
mechanisms in chemical reactions will certainly
receive attention from a number of research
groups, and we svill be getting a clearer under-
standing of exactly what happens in a binary col-
lision between reactants.

— Walter S. Koski

Chemical synthesis

For modern chemical technology and fundamental
studies of molecular behavior, pure chemical com-
pounds of defined constitution must be secured.
While naturally occurring materials exhibit great
diversity, they are often limited in supply and utility.
In fact, their number and structural t)'pes pale be-
fore those of the conceivable atomic combinations
of the elements. In the effort to build new chemical
structures, and reproduce or modify complex
natural products, chemists rely first upon the vast
body of chemical theory to guide them in formulat-
ing workable synthetic routes, and then upon the
array of selective and efficient reagents for per-
forming each of the individual component trans-
formations. The following discussion presents
recent examples of the successful application of
this basic procedure.

Vitamin B 12 . A clear indicator of the capability of
chemical synthesis is the complexity of structure
yielding to the chemist's hand. The synthesis of
vitamin Biz v/as announced at an international
symposium on the chemistry of natural products
held at New Delhi, India, in February' 1972. Robert
B. Woodward delivered the address describing the
culmination of a decade of joint activity between
his group at Harvard University and a team at the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich,
under the direction of Albert Eschenmoser. The
focusing of talent and resources by these research
teams is probably unparalleled in both quality and
magnitude, and in the ingenuiti' required to achieve
the goal.

Since the discovery in 1926 that minute quanti-
ties of what was later found to be Biz are required
by liver tissue for the prevention of pernicious
anemia, the vitamin yielded to purification (19^)
and structure elucidation (1955) only with the
greatest difficulty. Vitamin Btz (1) is a structural
relative of heme, the red blood pigment, and chlor-
ophyll, the green leaf pigment, in that a metal

208

Chemistry

atom (in this instance, cobalt) is embedded within
a nearly planar macrocyclic (ring structure of large
size) framework of four nitrogen containing rings
(A, B, C, and D). The singularity of vitamin B 12 , and
the challenge to synthesis, derive from the presence
of nine asymmetric centers on the periphery of this
large ring. At the starred sites (1) two different
substituents project either above (indicated v/ith
solid lines) or below (broken lines) the plane. Only
the indicated configuration of substituents at each
site corresponds to the natural vitamin.

The synthesis of polypeptides (see 1972 Britan-
nica Yearbook of Science and the Future CHEM-
ISTRY, Breakthrough in Chemistry), because of
the repeating amino acid units, could be accom-
plished automatically with a machine programmed
to link the required building blocks. By contrast,
the vitamin B 12 molecule does not have repeating
units. Thus, each of the approximately 100 syn-
thetic transformations required individual design.
To complete the synthesis a large number of v/holly
nev/ and ingenious reactions were devised. The
broad method of attack involved the construction
of two subunits, one comprised of rings A and D.
the other of rings B and C. The joining of rings C
and D yielded an elongated structure A-D-C-B with
many of the necessary features. The joining of A
and B required a folded form rather than the ex-
tended one preferred by this molecule. Introduction
of a metal atom brought the nitrogen atoms into
close proximity with the metal, thus bringing rings
A and B close enough to be joined by a chemical
bond. By following this basic pattern, the re-
searchers synthesized cobyric acid and showed it
to be identical with a sample of cobyric acid derived
from vitamin Bir. Some years earlier K. Bernhauer

letrodotoxin

( 2 )

00

and his colleagues in Stuttgart, W.Ger., had devised
a method for converting cobyric acid to vitamin
Bt 2 . Consequently, the synthesis v/as complete.

Aside from the personal satisfaction gained by
these scientists on having surmounted their Ever-
est. v/hat is the significance of their achievement?
In earlier days, synthesis v/as considered the ulti-
mate proof that a structure had been correctly
deduced. However, X-ray diffraction analysis is
now the prime method for proof of structure. Fur-
thermore, the synthetic route is unlikely to be em-
ployed for preparing the vitamin in the future since
the cost would be prohibitive. Perhaps this now
synthesis will make possible the preparation of
some modified form of vitamin Bi 2 that will be use-
ful in helping to elucidate the biological role played
by the vitamin. Also, the stimulus of achieving their
goal inspired the scientists to develop a number of
highly ingenious synthetic procedures that v/ill
have broad utility in other work. Nonetheless, in
retrospect, the argument can be made that the re-
turn was too small for the expenditure.

Perhaps the great artistry exemplified by this
effort is the final best effort of the golden age of
synthesis. As one ponders in v/hat manner these
artistic expressions v/ill be passed on to succeed-
ing generations, efforts are beginning to develop
in the direction of syntheses designed v/ith the aid
of computers. Perhaps a computer can be pro-
grammed to duplicate and improve on the ingenuity
of man in this area.

Tetrodotoxin. Another synthesis of great com-
plexity. described at the New Delhi meeting by
Yoshito Kishi and six colleagues of f.'agoya Uni-
versity's department of agricultural chemistry,
dealt with the elaboration of tetrodotoxin, the pot-

20'3

Chemistry

sonous principle of the Japanese puffer fish and
one of the most potent nerve poisons known. The
unusual assembly of rings into a space-enclosing
cage-like structure (2) was derived in part from a
simple benzene derivative.

Prostaglandins. The prostaglandins, a family of
physiologically active compounds, were becoming
available in research quantities through the efforts
of E. J. Corey at Harvard University and many
pharmaceutical research teams. Interest in these
substances, which occur naturally in only tiny
amounts, derives mainly from their unique ability
to stimulate muscle contraction at dosages of one-
billionth of a gram, and the hope that this action
can be safely and reliably used to induce labor and
abortion. The prostaglandins' diverse influences
upon biological functions have also suggested
their utility in the treatment of ulcers and asthma,
and as stimulants for the heart. Clinical evaluation
and research into all aspects of their pharmaco-
logical action are intense.

The structures of the six primary prostaglandins
are related to that shown for PGFia in (3). Two
other F-series compounds contain cis double
bonds at carbons 5,6 or 17,18; the three E-series
structures contain a ketone function at carbon 9.
All these 20 carbon fatty acids have two long carbon
chains on opposite sides (indicated by broken and
heavy lines at positions 8 and 12) of a small planar
ring. Not only must these and the other substituents
be in the proper three-dimensional relation to one
another, but the absolute configuration of the
whole molecule must be only that shown. That is,
the fingers of the right hand are related to each
other as are those of the left, but the right and left
hands are certainly not the samel This subtle mirror
image spatial isomerism of many natural sub-
stances presents a particular challenge to the syn-
thetic chemist.

The structural similarity of the several naturally
occurring prostaglandins suggested to Corey that,
rather than design distinct syntheses of each in-
dividual family member, an efficient approach
would involve construction of a single key "inter-
mediate" having many crucial features common to
all. Further simpler transformations of this inter-

mediate would yield all the desired compounds.
The success of this plan and further improvements
adaptable to large-scale production were reported.

Synthesis from free atoms. A largely neglected
area of chemistry was the reactions of atoms. Con-
trary to popular thought, until recently the chemis-
try of only a few of the 103 known atoms had been
described: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Chemists
generally did not have free atoms for study, but
only atoms strongly combined with other atoms
(like atoms combined are the elements, unlike
atoms combined are compounds). Although in
common parlance one makes such statements as
water contains oxygen atoms, this statement only
means that in principle water can be made from
oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms: there is not
even a remote resemblance in chemical behavior
between water and free oxygen atoms.

The boiling metal heated within a highly evacuated
flask liberates free atoms which strike a cold
surface ol reactant vapor molecules. The reactant
used may be one of many organic or inorganic
compounds. New materials incorporating the
atoms form in the solid matrix at the wall.

210

Chemistry

At high temperatures, above 3,000 F, most
atoms are available in the free state. They had not
been studied in this state for v/ant of a method of
mixing them v/ith other substances at low tempera-
ture. If the high-temperature atoms are cooled in
the absence of other substances, they react v/ith
one another vigorously to give the usual com-
paratively unreactive form of the element. Recently,
a method v/as developed by P. S. Skell and co-
v/orkers for mixing high-temperature atoms v/ith
low-temperature substances. A schematic diagram
(4) shows their basic apparatus, v/hich was used to
study the reactions of free atoms of many elements.
As instances of the difference betv/een bound and
free atoms, carbon in its usual form of graphite or
diamond is chemically inert, v/hile carbon atoms
react at temperatures of -300‘ to -400 F v/ith
almost any substance. Similarly, platinum metal
is valued because it is so inert to corrosron and
almost all reagents; in contrast, free platinum
atoms will react with simple olefins at lov/ tempera-
tures to make organoplatinum compounds.

A simple principle is that the higher the boiling
point of the element, the greater will be the differ-
ence in chemical properties between the free atom
and the usual form. This is a useful principle be-
cause the more strongly atoms are bound together
the higher will be the element’s boiling point.
These new reactions of atoms are broadly appli-
cable, and there is promise that many new com-
pounds v/ill be synthesized by application of the
technique of carrying out lov/-temperature reac-
tions with high-temperature substances.

—Robert A. Davidson and Philip S. Skell

Structural chemistry

A milestone in chemical structure was reached in
1972. In February Chemical Abstracts, published
by the American Chemical Society, recorded the
two millionth unique chemical structure in its
files. The substance v/as 5-amino-3-chloropyra-
zinecarboxaldehyde oxime. Since compounds are

being added at the rate of 300,000 per year at the
present time, the three millionth unique chemical
structure should be recorded in 1975.

Structure of atoms. Structural chemistry is con-
cerned not only with the shape and size of mole-
cules and hov/ the shape affects chemical and
physical properties but also v/ith the relation of
each individual atom in a molecule and how the
atoms are bonded together. This latter concern
includes the disposition of the electrons and the
shape and size of the individual nuclei. For some
time if v/as thought that the nuclei of atoms were
spherical, but in 1971 a group of scientists at Oak
Ridge (Tenn.) National Laboratory led by Paul H.
Stelson found that the nucleus of the uranium-238
atom v/as actually elongated in the shape of a
football. They v/ere able to demonstrate that the
long axis of the atom is about 35‘’/o longer than the
short axis.

For a long time if v/as thought that the rare gases
v/ere completely inert, but in recent years a number
of compounds of these rare gases have been de-
scribed. In 1971 Roy Gordon at Harvard University
v/as able to show that argon forms a diatomic
molecule (Ars); the bond energy of this molecule,
hov/ever, is only ’Aoo of the hydrogen molecule
(Hi). In addition to this v/eak binding force, "non-
bonded" systems repel each other at short dis-
tances. These nonbonding intermolecular forces
determine many chemical and physical properties
of substances.

In a related study. Stephen Derenzo at the Lav/-
rence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, Calif., was
able to use some of these properties to build a
liquid xenon radiation detector v/hich proved to be
about 10 times more accurate than the conven-
tional gas-filled detectors in pinpointing the posi-
tion of charged particles and the energy of gamma
rays. The basis for this detector is that the liquid
xenon has properties favorable for electron ava-
lanche. a snowballing effect that greatly amplifies
the small electrical signal produced when radia-
tion interacts with a detector. When the avalanche

Chemistry

the antibiotic nisin

ABA=aminobutyric acid (3-methyIalanine)

ALA= alanine
AN = asparagine
DHA = dehydroaianine

DHB = dehydrobutyrine (3-methyldehydroalanine)
GLY= glycine
HIS = histidine

lanthionine=ALA

ALA

ILEU = isoleucine
LEU = leucine
LYS= lysine
MET = methionine
PRO= proline
SER=serine
VAL=valine

3-mefhylianthionine = ABA

ALA

CO.H

12 }

occurs, a few thousand electrons freed by incident
radiation knock loose millions of additional elec-
trons. Because xenon is relatively inert (that is, its
outer shell is filled with tightly bound electrons),
the electrons, once freed, drift freely in the pure
liquid xenon. Very fine positively charged wires
criss-crossing the detection chamber pick up these
drifting electrons and their electrical signals.

New tools for structural determination. The
determination of the structure of a complex mole-
cule is often difficult and time-consuming. The
first step is the isolation and purification of the
material. A new tool for the isolation of compounds
of high molecular weight or of those that are heat-
sensitive is liquid-liquid chromatography. Robert
B. Woodward of Harvard University, who used
liquid-liquid chromatography extensively in his
recent synthesis of vitamin B, 2 , predicted that this
method would become in the 1970s what gas-
liquid chromatography was to chemistry in the
1 960s. (In chromatography a flow of solvent or gas
causes the components of a mixture to migrate
differentially from a narrov/ starting point.)

If a material can be obtained in a crystalline form.
X-ray crystallography has often been the method
of choice to determine its structure. If, however, the
material can not be crystallized or if the actual
structure or conformation in solution or in a mix-
ture is desired, such a technique is not applicable.

212

For example, it has been widely assumed that
enzyme structures are the same in crystals and in
solution. However, using a spectral chemical probe
with the enzyme carboxypeptidase A, Harvard
Medical School chemists Jack T. Johansen and
Bert L. Vallee were able to show that a derivative of
a tyrosine residue does not complex with the active
site of the crystals but does complex with the active
site in solution. (The active site of an enzyme is
that portion that interacts specifically with the
substrate.) Furthermore, the specific activity in
the solution is 300 times that of the crystalline
enzyme.

Another important problem in which X-ray dif-
fraction is of little use is in the location of the very
small hydrogen atom in a hydrogen bond, which is
extremely important in the alpha helix of the pro-
tein structure (a polypeptide chain folded in a
spiral similar to the threads of a screv/) and base
pairing in nucleic acids. Neutron diffraction can
determine the position of the hyd^rogen atom to an
accuracy much better than 0.01 A, v/hile X-ray dif-
fraction can rarely determine the^posjtion of the
hydrogen atom to better than 0.2 A (1A = 10'’°m).
With such information one can show that in lysine
hydrochloride one hydrogen atom of the a-NHj^
forms a very strong hydrogen bond with a neigh-
boring carboxyl group so that the barrier of rota-
tion is 7.0 kilogram calories (kgcal)/mole. For com-

Chemistry

parison, the barrier for the ammo group, v/hich
does not form such a strong hydrogen bond,
is only 2.9 kgcal/mole. according to V/alter C.
Hamilton of the Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Upton. N.Y.

A useful tool for examining the shape of noncry-
stalline large molecules is the transmission elec-
tron microscope. Hairnet Coppa and Klaus Heine-
mann. v/orking at the Ames Research Laboratory
of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration, recently improved the resolution of this
microscope to about 1 A from the present limits of
3 A by use of an angular aperture system.

The molecular formula of a substance can nov/
be determined directly by the use of a high-resolu-
tion mass spectrograph that can determine mole-
cular v/eights accurately within 0.001 of any given
molecular v/eight unit. Because of the structure
and natural abundance of various isotopes, the
atomic weights of elements are not even integers.
For example, if the carbon isotope '^C, is assigned
the value 12.00000, then hydrogen, 'H. is 1.00783;
nitrogen, ’■‘N, is 14.00307; oxygen, '®0, is 15.99491.
With these values one is able to calculate a mole-
cular formula quickly and accurately from a single
determination.

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance has been
used for some time to determine the structure of
small organic molecules. However, v/ith the advent
of the nev/ generation of instruments, such as the
220 and 300 MHz high-resolution spectrometers as
compared to the usual 60 MHz instruments, it be-
came possible to examine the structure of various
large and complex molecules, such as proteins and
synthetic polymers with molecular weights in the

millions. Similarly, nuclear magnetic resonance
(nmr) is capable of looking at the naturally oc-
curring '^C carbon isotope v/hich occurs to the
extent of l.l'tb together v/ith the very common '^C
isotope in organic compounds. By the utilization of
the nev/er, more powerful nmr instruments, to-
gether v/ith a Fourier analysis in a computer, very
accurate information which allov/s structural as-
signment can be obtained.

Another useful nev/ technique is electron X-ray
spectroscopy, sometimes called ESCA (electron
spectroscopy for chemical analysis). This was
pioneered by Kai Siegbahn at the University of
Uppsala in Sv/eden. His technique v/as to bom-
bard a molecule v/ith X rays to eject the tightly
held valence electrons, the energy of v/hich is
determined by the effective charge on a particular
atom and therefore its chemical environment. This
method allov/s one to look at a large variety of
chemical elements directly. For example, since
there is a good correlation betv/een the effective
charge on a sulfur atom and the energy required
to eject an electron from the 2p valence orbit (the
orbit of third lowest energy level around a nucleus),
Siegbahn was able to use this technique to shov/
that the oxidation of sulfur in a molecule of in-
sulin took place to give the thiosulfonate form
rather than the disulfoxide form. The spectra
showed two peaks for sulfur atoms rather than the
single peak that would have been expected if the
symmetrical disulfoxide had been produced.

Structure of inorganic compounds. In the inor-
ganic field two new isotopes of element 105, for
which the name hahnium v/as proposed, were
synthesized v/ith a heavy ion linear accelerator by

Electron microoraph shows a
carbon liber produced by
propane pyrolysis over mere'

The averape direction ol the
(D002) graphite lattice planes is
parallel to the axis ol the hber,

I e . the areas whe'e meta’
particles are be'ievcd to have
been Ithe metai mas P'cs'jmat'y
removed during prcoa’ati.e
treatment with concentrated HCI)
rccc'7.* to*

fDrr:2:.*'0 rrcoh2n:z*y'i c' if'czo

ti.CDc'ZCOt iz Coooz 'cd tn

pczz-o’c- ccrrrjst S'? ot
02 : 2 '/*: c dcztz r zn c' cz-zzn

d Z*.2ZZf^ 2^2/

Communications

Albert Ghiorso at Lawrence Radiation Laboratory',
Berkeley, Calif. Hahnium-262, which was produced
by bombarding berkeIium-249 with oxy'gen-IS, has
a haif-Iife of about 40 seconds. Hahnium-261,
which was produced by bombarding californium-
250 v.'ith nitrogen-16 or berkelium-249 with
oxygen-16, has a half-life of about 1.8 seconds.

Uranium carbonyls, sought unsuccessfully in
the 1 940s for the separation of uranium isotopes by
gaseous diffusion, were successfully prepared at
low temperatures by a group of chemists from the
University' of Florida and Florida State University
v.'hen a mixture of uranium, carbon monoxide, and
argon at 4= K (—269’ C) was warmed and then
quenched to 4’ K. Uranium compounds containing
up to six carbonyls (the radical CO) are formed.

Structure of nev/ polypeptides. As the structures
of more and more proteins were determined, the
structures of many different materials v/ere noted
to be strikingly similar. For example, Joseph Kraut
of the University of California, San Diego, found
that two catalytic enzj'mes, which evolved inde-
pendently, have identical arrangements of the pep-
tide chains involved in the catalytic mechanism.
The two molecules, chymotry'psin from vertebrates
and subpilisin from bacteria, are identical at the
catalytic site but have peptide chains folded dif-
ferently in other parts of the U'.'o molecules. Kraut
noted; "Nature has twice come up with the same
solution to a specific problem in molecular en-
gineering."

In a similar vein, Choh Hao Li of the University of
California’s Hormone Research Laboratory in San
Francisco recently determined the structure of the
human hormone, chorionic somatomammotropin
(HCS), that is present in the placenta of pregnant
women. This hormone bears a remarkable similar-
ity to the human grovrth hormone (HGH) whose
structure his group had determined earlier. The
two hormones share the same bifunctional phys-
iological action in that they both promote bodily
grovrth and stimulate mammary development and
milk secretion, as well as have similar immunologi-
cal responses. Both hormones are proteins com-
prised of 190 amino acids, 160 of Vi'hich are se-
quentially identical. In addition, both molecules
consist of hvo loops, one large and one small,
formed by a disulfide bridge bebveen the cy’steine
residues at positions 53 and l&i and positions 180
and IBB.

Chemists at Ciba-Geigy, Ltd. in Switzerland re-
ported that the previously published structure
for the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) was
incorrect. ACiH, vrhich has 39 amino acids, was
reassigned a structure that was later confirmed by
the synthesis of the full polypeptide molecule.

A nonsteroidal fertility-regulating compound, a

hypothalamic hormone that triggers the release
of lutinizing hormone and of the follicle-stimu-
lating hormone from the neighboring pituitary'
gland, and hence called LH-RH/FSH-RH, was
recently isolated and its structure determined (1).
The structure appears to be simple enough to
permit its synthesis on a commercial scale and
suggests that analogs vrill also be available in the
near future.

The peptide antibiotic nisin (2), which is active
against malarial parasites, also was isolated and its
structure determined. Although nisin consists of
only 29 amino acids, that number includes 8 of
the less common ones; the peptide also contains
five cyclic units that may give the antibiotic the
capacity' to bind ions. Erhard Gross and John Mor-
el! of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethes-
da, Md., speculated that the two double bonds in
the molecule play a key part in nisin’s biological
activity'.

— William J. Bailey

Communications

In charting the grov/th of the world's population
and of the world’s telephones over the past 50
years, it becomes quickly apparent that the number
of telephones has grov.-n more rapidly than the
number of people. While the world’s population
has approximately doubled since 1921, the num-
ber of telephones has grown more than tenfold.

By Jan. 1, 1971, the number of telephones
throughout the world had increased to nearly 273
million. And if, as expected, the pattern of grovrth
established over the last decade continued during
1971, nearly 300 million phones should have been
in ser\'ice by the year’s end. Also by 1971. 37 coun-
tries had more than 500,000 phones. Israel was the
latest nation to join this group. Rfteen of the
world’s cities had more than one million tele-
phones, seven of those within the U.S.

As telephone users. North Americans remained
the busiest with each person in the U.S. account-
ing for 779 calls in 1970, and each Canadian ac-
counting for 739. Sweden ranked third, with 674
telephone conversations for each person during
the previous year. Interestingly, Iceland and the
Bahamas were not far behind the leaders, v.ith
593 and 512 calls, respectively.

This continuing growth of telephony pro\ided a
challenge to scientists and engineers in the field
of telecommunications. Ne^v way’s of transmitting
messages had to be invented, and new techniques
had to be developed for routing these messages
through the complex telephone nebvork to their
destination.

214

Ccurtc»y. Be'l loboro»o».»»

Communications services. While the basic
telephone v/as being used by more people than
ever in 1971, nev/ services and new uses for it were
being added. Perhaps the most spectacular of
these was the see-while-you-talk PICTURE-
PHONE® service, introduced in Pittsburgh during
1970 and in Chicago during 1971. This service per-
mits PICTUREPHONE conversationalists to see and
shov/ drav/ings and objects to each other and.
in general, represents a form of communica-
tion that is the "next best thing to being there."
PICTUREPHONE service also enables the user to
dial information from a computer and have it dis-
played graphically on the screen.

But while a telephone conversation requires
about 4,000 Hertz (Hz) of bandwidth for trans-
mission, a PICTUREPHONE signal needs 1,000,000
Hz. Much research was devoted to removing trans-
mission redundancy for areas of the picture that
do not change from frame to frame. This would
allow the use of a narrower bandwidth, making
transmission costs cheaper.

One of the most promising methods for doing
this is conditional selective frame replenishment.
The concept behind this technique is that v/hen the
picture is not changing the only information that
must be transmitted to the other screen is just that
—"no change." As movement occurs, changing
the scene, the particular part of the picture that
needs updating is defined and only that area of the
picture on the other screen is changed. The amount
of frequency bandwidth needed to transmit the
no-change condition is quite small, v/hile the band-
width needed to transmit rapid motion over large
areas is quite large — 1,000,000 Hz as mentioned
earlier. Frame replenishment attempts to average
these extremes. The scheme's objective is to pro-
cess a PICTUREPHONE signal so that it can be
transmitted over the equivalent of one-tenth its
original bandwidth when the signal is coded in a
digital format.

The role of digital coding is important, and digi-
tal transmission looms large both in a review of
important events in 1971 and in the future of tele-
communications. Future systems to carry the
world’s great variety of communication signals will
probably be digital — that is. they v/ill transmit
communications as on-off pulses rather than as
continuously varying signals.

Digital transmission makes possible the use of
another important telecommunication service,
digital data. Although digital data transmission
service is not new, having been developed in the
1950s. important new advances took place in 1971
that were expected to speed and enlarge its aopli-
cations. The principal use of digital data is to per-
mit machines-computers. teletypewriters, and

Xmy slarhkc particle at the center o! the photograph is
being held alolt by light An invisible laser beam
passing through a lens at the end ol the glass tube is
bent by the triangular prism to locus on the
transparent glass particle Irom belovi

telemetering equipment— to communicate with
each other. The most efficient means for handling
their language— on-off digital signals— is a digital
transmission system. The nev/ development
achieved during 1971 that v/ould eventually link
machines in most cities of the U.S. v/as a techno-
logical breakthrough knov/n as data-undervoice
(or DUV). V/hat made DUV so significant and its
potential impact so far-reaching was that it could
be used on the existing microwave radio relay net-
work. a transmission facility that reaches almost
every corner of the U.S. This network in 1972 re-
layed nearly all television programming and about
two-thirds of the long-distance telephone conver-
sations in the U.S. The DUV system, developed at
Bell Laboratories, "piggy-backs" digital data sig-
nals over the microv/ave netv/ork in frequency
bands currently transmitted by the system but
below those used lor its voice traffic. A field trial
of the new DUV system was scheduled for 1972.

DUV's new capability was built around terminal
equipment that processes a 1.5 million-bit-per-
second (megabit) digital signal so that it can be
transmitted over one working channel in the micro-
wave system. In a radio system route with 16 chan-
nels, for example, it would be possible to expand
digital data service, in steps of 1.5 megabits. Irom
a capacity of 1 channel to 16 l.5-mcgabit channels,
depending on demand lor the service.

When transmitting digital data, the error rate of
the Si'Stem is vital. If transmission facilities that
carry data distort the signals, the accuracy of the
communication v.-ill be degraded. The DUV system

215

Communfcations

was expected to achieve a very low error rate. Even
if the radio channel carrying the signal should fade
severely enough to trigger the system to switch to
a protective, back-up channel, the error rate of the
digital signal at the time of the switch is expected
to be significantly better than one on-off pulse for
every 10 million transmitted. When such fading is
not a factor, the performance of DUV is expected
to make the error rate practically zero.

Another new communications service that was
shown to be practical and came a step closer to
realization during 1971 was a high-capacity mobile
telecommunications system proposed to the U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) by
the American Telephone and Telegraph Company
(AT & T) in December 1971. The proposed system
represented a radical departure from previous
mobile radio telephone concepts. By using a
honeycomb pattern of small service areas and
reusing a limited number of radio frequencies
many times, the new system was designed to make
it possible to offer mobile telephone service to
many more users, and at the same time offer im-
provements in cost and quality of service.

Communications devices. The laser, a device
capable of emitting coherent light, seemed likely
to be the cornerstone of future high-capacity
systems to transmit communications. Optical
transmission techniques were being studied by
researchers to develop high-capacity systems in
which telephone conversations, television, digital
data, and other signals would be transmitted by
means of visible and infrared light. Lasers were
expected to provide potent light sources for these
systems.

One of the most unusual discoveries during 1971
was made by research scientists who used radia-
tion pressure from a beam of laser light to raise
small transparent glass spheres off a glass surface.
The researchers found they were able to lift the
spheres and hold them aloft for hours in a stable
position, a phenomenon never before observed.

In the experiments, a laser beam was focused
upward on a tiny glass sphere about 20 microns
(about 0.001 in.) in diameter. The researchers
found that radiation pressure from the light not
only counteracted gravity and raised the particle,
but also trapped the glass sphere and prevented it
from slipping out of the beam. In the experiment,
successfully conducted both in air and in a partial
vacuum, the scientists generated a stable optical
trap for holding particles, which they termed an
“optical bottle."

Their results demonstrated that light photons
have momentum as well as energy. Thus, when a
laser is focused on a small transparent particle
the force exerted by its light, though extremely

216

small, is sufficient to lift the sphere off the surface
and suspend it.

The experiment was not as simple a procedure as
it seemed. The sphere was launched by lifting it off
a transparent glass plate with the light beam. Ini-
tially, however, the radiation pressure was not
sufficient to overcome the molecular attraction
between the sphere and the glass plate. This attrac-
tion, known as Van der Waals force, is about
10,000 times the force of gravity for a 20-micron
sphere. For this experiment, the Van der Waals
attraction was broken acoustically by vibrating a
ceramic cylinder attached to the plate.

When the attraction was broken, the sphere rose
in the light beam and came to rest where the up-
ward pressure caused by the laser was balanced
by the earth’s gravity. In this position, it was held
aloft as long as the light was focused on it. By
changing the position of the focus, the researchers
caused the trapped sphere to move up and down
or sideways very precisely.

In the experiment, the new phenomenon of the
trapping forces created by the light was also
studied by using a second laser focused on the
trapped particle from the side. As the power of the
second laser was increased, the particle was dis-
placed within the first laser beam until it was finally
driven out and fell.

The experiments may provide research scientists
with simple, precise methods for manipulating
small particles without mechanical support. This
capability could be useful in communications re-
search for measuring scattering loss caused by
particles in the atmosphere or in other transmis-
sion media. These measurements were expected
to help communications researchers develop
optical transmission systems for the future.

During 1971, the study of lasers for their commu-
nications potential demonstrated some new and
unanticipated noncommunications applications
for these devices. The studies showed that rapid,
precise, on-the-spot identification of pollutant
gases in the air might be made possible by using
a laser-light technique devised at Bell Labo-
ratories. The equipment used for the tests included
a fixed-frequency pump laser (in the present case
a carbon monoxide laser), a powerful electromag-
net used to "tune” the laser beam to a desired light
frequency (by changing its magnetic field), and a
rotating shutter to interrupt the beam at regular
intervals to cause a pulsing in the light emitted.

The beam of laser light was directed into an
optoacoustic absorption cell containing the air
sample suspected of being polluted. The cell con-
tained a sensitive microphone with a cylindrical
diaphragm that converted changes in air pressure
info electrical energy. In the air samples, each type

Communications

of polluting gas can be identified by the specific
frequency of light that it absorbs from the laser
light (its infrared absorption spectrum). When the
gas absorbs the light energy, it turns it into heat.
The heat in turn causes the gas pressure to in-
crease, and it is this increase in pressure that is
detected by the sensitive microphone referred to
above. A common pollutant, nitric oxide, absorbs
infrared light at several wavelengths in the region
of 5 to 6 microns.

Infrared absorption measurements are helpful
for pollution studies because almost all known
pollutants have their fundamental absorption
bands in the infrared (nonvisible) portion of the
spectrum from about 2-15^t. While many gases
may be present in an air sample, each separate
gas has its own absorption characteristics, and
it is possible to find at least one absorption line
for a pollutant that is not overlapped by absorp-
tion lines from other gases. One problem has been
to distinguish between a pollutant and other over-
lapping gases. Another difficulty has been that

pollutant concentrations are as small as one part
per million— too small to be measured directly.
The new laser technique solves both problems.

International communications. Although inter-
national telephone traffic v/as much smaller than
that within nations, international calling was grow-
ing in the early 1970s at twice the rate of domestic
calls. The international telephone calling rate from
the U.S. to other countries continued to grow. In
1969 Americans originated about 20 million inter-
national calls and in 1970 about 26 million. Be-
tween 1960 and 1970 there was a sevenfold in-
crease.

fn 1971 the Intelsat 4 series of satellites was
inaugurated with the launch of the first one for the
Communications Satellite Corporation in January.
A second member of this family was launched in
December, followed by the third in January 1972
and the fourth in June. These satellites were de-
signed to provide much-needed relief for over-
worked channels spanning both the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. Each Intelsat 4 could handle more

Computers

than 6,000 telephone conversations, and its
functioning could be modified by commands from
the ground as new needs arose.

The Soviet Union also added to its satellite com-
munication system during 1971 with a launch of
another in the series of Molniya satellites in July.
The satellite system in the U.S.S.R. is used for
television and telephony.

In the field of submarine cables, considerable
activity took place, although none of the systems
terminated in the U.S. Ten cable systems were
installed during 1971, ranging in length from 64
naut mi (across the English Channel from Great
Britain to Belgium) to 825 naut mi (from Canada
to Bermuda). They varied in capacity from as few
as 60 channels (Okinawa to Taiwan) to as many as
1,840 (Spain to the Canary Islands).

Future outlook. A far-reaching and comprehen-
sive review of the telecommunications field was
contained in a report submitted by the National
Academy of Engineering (NAE) to the U.S. Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development in June
1971. This report, which summarized the thoughts
of many telecommunications planners, discussed
four basic future networks: (1) the telephone net-
work for transmitting pictures, voice, and written
material between two points; (2) a network, based
on existing cable television systems, which can
distribute information from central facilities to
offices and homes, with a capacity of as many as
30 television channels and a limited call-back ca-
pacity for polling or making requests; (3) a broad-
band communications network carrying up to 30
television channels in both directions that would
interconnect major public institutions and large
commercial enterprises; (4) a multipurpose city
sensing network to collect data on such items as
weather, pollution, and traffic.

The NAE report reached the following conclu-
sion: "Many of the cities' problems are caused by
high-density living conditions in an era of in-
creasingly rapid change. Communications tech-
nology, imaginatively applied, could offset the
trend in which the vast majority of Americans
today, and more in the future, live on a small per-
centage of the available land.

"We suggest an exploratory program to examine
how broadband communications technology could
be applied to business, government, education,
health care, and entertainment to stimulate the
development of existing small communities, or new
communities, in rural areas. As a result, people
would have a viable option of settling in either
urban or rural America."

—Irwin Welber

See also Year in Review: ASTRONAUTICS AND
SPACE EXPLORATION, Earth Satellites.

218

Computers

When viewed from the outside, the computer field
in 1 972 still appeared to be vigorous and dominated
by a "pioneering” psychology— there were so many
new applications, so much new technology, and so
many pressing national problems requiring in-
telligent computer support. From the inside, the
field seemed less lusty, more deliberate in its choice
of problems, more conservative in its methods, and
more perfectionist in its certification of software
and hardware products. As organizations have
become more dependent on computers, they have
become more cost-conscious. Competition for the
customer’s dollar has increased. Overall, there
were enormous economic forces on the computer
industry to stabilize, to slow its headlong develop-
ment, to increase its quality control, and to become
more conservative in its methods. But there were
also enormous technological forces that mitigated
against stability and control. The computer field
had not begun to use up its reserves of discoveries
in physics and electronics, which spawn new com-
ponents, new design, and new equipment.

World computer growth. Estimates in 1972
placed the number of installed computers in the
United States at about 80,000. However, most of
the newly installed computers were in the small or
mini category (rental about $1 ,500 a month or less).
The Japanese had about 8,000 computers installed
and were engaged in a national effort to computer-
ize their society. It was estimated that they had

Experimental electronic chip, shown here on a common
window screen, can store 960 bits ol computer
inlormation. Microscopic circuits on the
chip— called charge-coupled devices— store the
information by means ol minuscule electric charges.

Autherticofed Nevvi |niernct'e'’5‘

Computers

Double-exposure of a defective
card reader part pinpoints areas
of stress that caused the part to
fail. By using this new technique,
scientists can analyze such
failures in as little as two hours,
a task that previously took as
long as two weeks.

earmarked S1 billion for revamping primary and
junior-high-school education, automated vehicle
control, pollution alarm systems, and automated
service industries like supermarkets and banking.
The government allocated S24 million to subsidize
the Japanese computer industry, and from 1972 to
1975 promised computer manufacturers about
S1 1 0 million to support their research and develop-
ment programs. Smaller amounts were set aside
for the support of software development.

In France there were about 6.500 computers, and,
through joint efforts with West German and Dutch
firms, the French continued their determined drive

to weaken the domination by IBM H^nnt

Europe. West Germany, which in 1972 had a
8,000 installations, was hoping to reduce
share of the government computing
80r= to 60%. In Great Britain the government was
asked to provide S120 million a year for the support

of its computer industry. ^vooniimip

The decision of RCA in Septem er o i

its computer manufacture and sa unstained

business story of the year in the U.S

a S250 million tax loss and laid

Control Data Corp. took over the ^

RCA installations. In other Posiness Pf P

IBM delivered more than 10.000

of small business computers and

its new System 370 line in its irs 3 gg

ceeded that of about four times

models, even 3 , Equipment Corp.

as many components. Uig ^Tniromoutcrs

delivered about 13, OOOof its iver ^ 3 .

and continued to be the g aoo-

chines of that size. Overall. ,n the U.S..

nomic slowdown continued to affect the industry:
for example, the number of installations in southern
California dropped 10% during the year.

Computer technology. Very large computer
memories were being supplied to government and
industryin 1972. Precision Instrument Co. delivered
to the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration a memory consisting of one trillion
bits, and a three trillion-bit memory was promised
for late 1972. (A bit is the basic information symbol
in the binary notation system used by digital com-
puters and is represented by either a closed or
open circuit.) In the present decade the cost per
bit is expected to fall from 0.01 to 0.00001 cents.
However, in 1972 the industry was still operating
at the expensive end of the spectrum. Thus, a com-
mercial holographic (laser) memory system of 12
million-bit capacity was being delivered at a cost of
0 01 cents per bit. Commercial magnetic spot (or
domain) memories were also available at a cost of
about five cents per bit. although a slov/or and
smaller version cost about one cent per bit.

By 1972 the age of large-scale integrated (LSI)
circuits had arrived. MOS (metal oxide semicon-
ductor) integrated circuits accounted for about
25°'o of the computer circuit market. Some of this
circuitry allowed minicomputers to achieve addi-
tion times of 100 nanoseconds (1 nanosecond y
0.000000001 sec). The first "computer on a chip"
was announced by Intel Corp. Such a chip, made o.
silicon and measuring i/~ - 3/-1 m., contamcd a
4-bit adder. 46-bit program counter and stack, an
addre'^s incrcmcnter. an 8-b't instruction rcgis.er
and d»coder. control iog.c, and a rcoedoire of -15
instructions. A corr.outcr developed by Into! con-

2t9

Computers

Harry Seawell

tained four such chips, a control memory, a 320-bit
memory, and a 10-bit shift register.

Optical character recognition (OCR) machines
by 1972 were considered standard commercial
items. However, their inclusion in general computer
operations had still not been attained. A system
being designed for the blind used OCR for putting
English text into a computer, utilizing a dictionary
to map the words into phonemes, passing these to
a speech synthesizer, and then expressing the text
in audio form. The system was scheduled to be
tested on blind students at the University of Con-
necticut late in 1972.

Supercomputers were in operation during the
year. Goodyear's STARAN IV, under optimal condi-
tions, processed up to 500 million instructions per
second, though the average performance rate was
more like 16 million instructions per second. The
STAR computer of Control Data was somewhat
slower but still could process about 15 million
instructions per second on data streams.

The netv/ork of the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense

A graphic design as at the left
can be presented and
manipulated on a terminal
hooked up to a specially
programmed computer. The
terminal displays mathematical
functions and circuit designs.

The image can be rotated by
pointing a light pen at the area
on the terminal labeled "phi":
size changes can be accomplished
by pointing the pen at the area
labeled "scale."

in 1972 connected 23 centers and was functioning
for a growing population of users. The connected
computers included PDP-10, PDP-11, llliac IV,
B5500, IBM 360/91 . Each node of the network con-
tained a modified Honeywell DDP 516 computer
(IMP), which processed (and forwarded) messages.
The connecting links were leased telephone lines
operating at 50,000 bits per second. The network
was equipped to handle both long and short mes-
sages as sequences of 1 ,000-bit packets which are
independently propagated. Routing and reformat-
ting of forwarded messages was routinely handled
in the IMPs at the nodes.

The network was used by researchers who wished
to have access to special programs and/or large
data bases at remote sites. One installation used a
remote computer to build and test software for a
similar computer that it would later take delivery
on. The network had a number of one-of-a-kind
computer resources that all subscribers might use,
such as special very fast computers, very large
memories, and specialized software systems.

Other commercial networks existed, including

220

Computers

the extensive CYBERNET of Control Data Corp.
and the INFONET of Computer Sciences Corp., but
none was as well organized and as flexible a sv/itch-
ing network as ARPA. The U.S. National Science
Foundation continued to support various university
networks aimed at supplying computing power
from central machines to smaller ones at high
schools and small colleges. A good example of
such a network was one operated by the University
of California.

There seemed little doubt that netv;ork configu-
rations of computers and terminals would be the
dominant mode of future computing. Thus, there
v/as enormous activity in the design and manu-
facture of terminals and minicomputers that could

be connected to networks. Their prices ranged from
$800 for the teletype up to 320,000 for a graphics
terminal. Their variety was bewildering. Some pro-
duced hard copy, and some character graphics
only: others provided line-drawing capability.

Applications. There seemed to be no slackening
in the application of computers to new tasks. At the
same time, though it appeared less evident to the
casual onlooker, enormous improvement was con-
tinually taking place in those applications.

The postal services were prime candidates for
computerization. Tests were under way ®
Cincinnati, O., post office to sort mail under com-
puter control. A host of problems remained to be
solved, and in their solution the postal
would almost certainly be radically altered,
far, the emphasis was on the distribution o ■
However, the sending of mail by optical o'',e'ec-
tronic means was sure to be actively tried in the

next few years. . ^ cwctomt;

One of the most successful conaputer sy
was NASDQ, used by stockbrokers. In 197 P
cessed about one million calls per
quotations. Few doubted that the au .

exchange was near to reality. Many
medium circulation installed and were usi 9
puter-controlled typesetting. Scores
departments used computer systems
creasingly sophisticated attack on cri
the premise that information existing 'n
be correlated by computers Feature

that make crime-solving *■ LqoatORY )

Article: CRIME FIGHTERS IN THE LAB

Volkswagen installed in its cars a s

whose outputs are throuoh the

A computer can be attached to , test

socket so that a program ‘he compu er c n «e

a number of the P-^^^^lTor t^ corn-

many had proposed such a sc

plex devices. ^ ;<= of course.

Modeling of is essential. Man is

the area in which the comp

no longer driven by curiosity, but by necessity, to
model his society and environment. He has become
aware that many of the great forces acting on so-
ciety are irreversible and that planning — long-range

planning— has thus become indispensable. Weather

forecasting, in real time, by computers is recog-
nized as an important goal since it has such im-
mediate commercial and social value. But scientists
v/ere also beginning to appreciate the need for
long-range climate study. Man's handiwork in-
creasingly affects climate, and computer simula-
tions of climatic consequences were increasingly
recognized as important contributions to national
debates such as those on supersonic transport,
the Alaskan pipeline, and urban pollution. An
interesting computer simulation of the forces caus-
ing the deterioration of Venice is being performed
in Italy. Land subsidence, pollution, and floods are
taking their toll of that city. What controls will slow
this deterioration of an important center of Western
culture? So many variables interact, and so many
models are possible that the computer is essential
for such studies. Similar studies are soon expected

"You know. I'm beginning to Icel guilty about the
uncfvptoymont situstion'

Earth sciences

to be quite common in many U.S. municipalities.

No model provoked more comment than one
developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology which sought to show that national and
international growth of the scale now being sus-
tained would bring irreversible disaster to the
world in the next century. The model is international
in scope, covers a long time period, and includes a
large number of important variables. Its simulation
results had a mixed reception. Many outstanding
economists publicly derided the approach, the
data used, and the conclusions reached. Such has
been the fate of most such studies, which have
attempted to extrapolate short-term present be-
havior into the future. It should be noted that simu-
lations can be improved through practice, as wit-
ness the enormously improved competence of the
election results simulations.

The computer is approaching a combination of
speed, memory, size, and cost that allows it to be
used in increasingly important control applications.
Serious research work was under way to use a
computer to signal an undamaged part of a brain
to control the performance of motor functions
which a damaged part can no longer do. A brain-
damaged monkey with one paralyzed arm was
taught to flip a switch on a computer which would
then transmit signals to its brain to work the para-
lyzed arm so that it might feed itself.

By putting a scanning video camera and a com-
puter into a car, researchers at Stanford (Calif.)
University could study robot-controlled driving.
Robots were solving some simple problems,
but mostly they worked on the blindly mechani-
cal level indicated by their name. (See Feature
Article: MECHANICAL SERVANTS FOR MANKIND.)

The future. So much happens in one year in the
computer field that it is difficult to sense the future.
Still, in 1972 some trends were clear. The computer
is accelerating the rate at which knowledge gets
distributed and the rate at which our systems for
performing large tasks get altered. It seems un-
likely that there will be less use in the future of
computers for processing data about us and our
society. Our security and dignity can only be safe-
guarded by appropriate legal means (legislation
and the courts) and, more importantly, by an in-
creasing understanding and appreciation of
computers. These machines are not our masters.
We are theirs. In the next few years one of the
greatest responsibilities of our education systems
is to teach our young that computers, and the tasks
they perform, can be bent to serve everyone and
on a one-by-one basis, and not just the large orga-
nizations whose needs and appetites dominate the
uses made of computers today.

— Alan J. Perils

Earth sciences

The most significant developments during the
year were in the history of the ocean basins and in
planetary geology. Results of extensive programs
over the last decade were yielding a consistent
model for the geologic development of planetary
bodies of various sizes.

Geology and geochemistry

As part of the Apollo 15 mission, begun July 26,
1971, astronauts David R. Scott and James B.
Irwin collected moon rock samples near the foot
of Hadley Delta Mountain, which rises 12,000 ft
above the Mare Imbrium plain. The lunar rover
traveled three miles from the landing site to the
edge of Hadley Rille, a sinuous fissure extending
for 70 mi. The rille is probably a collapsed lava tube
formed during volcanic eruptions long after the
formation of Mare Imbrium. Horizontal layering of
a dozen successive lava flows is visible on the
sides of the rille.

Included in the 171 lb of rock returned to earth
was an important sample of anorthosite (com-
posed of over 99% plagioclase with the remainder
pyroxene and ilmenite). It is probably a piece of
the lunar crust that existed before the formation
of Mare Imbrium and was dated at 4,150,000,000
years, the oldest rock yet collected on the moon.
The moon, along with the earth and other planets,
probably formed by means of gravitational accre-
tion about 4,600,000,000 years ago, while the Mare
Imbrium formed about 4,000,000,000 years ago as
a result of a meteorite impact on the moon. Lava
flows filling the Mare Imbrium at Hadley Rille are
3,300,000,000 years old.

Instrumentation installed at the Apollo 12 and 14
sites sent back information that trace amounts of
water vapor are escaping from the lunar interior.
Previously, the moon was thought to be devoid of
water. The hydrous mineral goethite (Fe 203 -nH 20 )
was found in small amounts in the Apollo 14 sam-
ples from the Fra Mauro region: this was the first
evidence of water incorporated in the mineral
structure of any lunar sample. The total amount
of water on the moon is minuscule, however. There
is no atmosphere to produce precipitation and no
indication that enough water ever existed on the
moon to produce stream erosion.

In June 1971 the United States exchanged three
grams of Apollo 11 samples for three grams of
Soviet samples obtained from the Sea of Fertility
by the unmanned spacecraft Luna 1 6. This was the
first concrete result of the U.S.-Soviet agreement
for cooperation in space.

Photographs from the Mariner 9 spacecraft in

222

•J,'V ■ .-.iS,-

«hc rfon/rf the crvstallization ol quartz directly Irom seawater
A series of scanrimg electron micrographs aep ci poor sorting.

a( room temperature. The first figure ts the s 9 mnrnholoov The remaining figures show the quartz
surfaces after immersion in sea\/ater and

orbit around Mars revealed a probable volcanic
vent at Nix Olympica and three probable volcanic
craters in the Tharsis region. Mars is intermediate
in geologic behavior between the moon and tne
earth. Its interior has had more differentia '°n
igneous rocks than the moon, and it .

sphere to produce weathering and win e .
phenomena present on the earth but a sen
moon. Impact craters are conspicuous ° '

because erosion and mountain-building pr
have not obliterated early craters, as
pened on the earth. honin-

Radar measurements from the ea ' ..ujc-h is
ning to reveal the topography of ' ' j„nsc

invisible to direct observation fg.

cloud cover of that planet. One mou .

gion about 200 mi across Tn

above the general level of ^ fxpLORA-

Review: ASTRONAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORA

TION: ASTRONOMY_)

Marine geology. The vess ^

er" completed legs Sea Drilling

tional Science Foundation s

Project with a total of 37 new holes drilled into the
northern Pacific. In leg 20. two drilling records
were set at a site 800 mi SE of Tokyo: the "Glomar
Challenger's” bit descended through the deepest
water yet tested in the drilling project (20,321 ft)
and then drilled the greatest rock penetration m
the project (1.237 ft). The bottom hole samples
were Jurassic rocks over 135 million years old, the
oldest yet obtained from the Pacific floor. The find-
ings of the entire project caused a complete re-
thinking of theories concerning the structure and
behavior of rocks beneath the ocean, confirmed
continental drift, and revolutionized prospects for
long-range mineral exploration.

During the past 125 million years the northern
Pacific floor has moved northwestward more than
2.000 mi. Parts of the Pacific that were once under
the Equator are now just south ol the Aleutian
ictands. This motion has not been at a uniform
speed, but if came as a total surprise that 70 million
to 55 million years ago the motion reversed, so that
the Pacific crustal plate moved southward fo' a
time before resuming its no.dhwestward dnft. This

223

Sidney Harris

"They did it again— not a word in the weather report
about an ice age."

was the first definite evidence of a complete re-
versal in motion of a tectonic plate. The reversal
might be related to the breaking apart of Australia
and Antarctica, which occurred about 65 million
years ago. At the present time, the Pacific crust is
moving against and downsinking beneath Asia,
drifting at the rate of 4 in. per year over the past
10 million years.

The 1970s were designated the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration by the UN General
Assembly. As part of this effort, the U.S. Geological
Survey undertook a six-month cruise to study the
sediments and mineral resources beneath the Gulf
of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the sea floor ad-
jacent to Liberia, in Africa. The first leg was off the
coast of Mexico. Jurassic salt beds seem to under-
lie the entire Gulf of Mexico and appear to have
been formed by a combination of evaporation and
restricted circulation as the Gulf was opening up
during the beginning of continental drift. Seismic
profiles revealed that the sediments along the
western margin of the Gulf are sliding toward the
deeper portion of the basin, producing folds in the
marginal sediments.

The theory of sea-floor spreading implies an
upwelling of the suboceanic crust at the site of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, with a moving of the sea floor
away from the ridge at a rate of one to two centi-
meters a year as new material is brought up. Thus,
the axial zone should contain only rocks less than
10 million years old. During the year, however,
scientists reported remnant blocks of older rocks

in transverse fracture zones left behind as most of
the sea floor spread. Ultrabasic (low in silica and
high in ferromagnesian materials) igneous rock
from St. Paul Rocks is 835 million years old. The
crest of the Verna transverse ridge yielded samples
of limestone with detrital feldspar and quartz
deposited at a time when granitic continental areas
were nearby: these probably represent remnant
blocks of Jurassic or early Cretaceous sediments
deposited as the Atlantic Basin was first spreading
open some 120 million years ago.

Scientists at the Scripps Institution of Oceanog-
raphy, La Jolla, Calif., reported that some of the
thickest known ocean sediments in the world are
in the Bay of Bengal. Some 54,000 ft of strata have
been deposited there after being carried from the
Himalayas to the sea by the Ganges River. (See
Year in Review: MARINE SCIENCES.)

World geologic map. The Commission for the
Geological Map of the World continued work,
under the direction of the International Geological
Congress, to develop a geologic map at scales of
1:10,000,000 (1 in. = 160 mi) and 1 : 30 , 000,000
(1 in. = 480 mi). The project involved geological
representatives from more than 100 countries. The
first parts of the finished map were printed in 1972
for presentation at the 24th International Geologi-
cal Congress in Montreal in August.

Paleontology. In 1971 William J. Morris dis-
covered remains from a duck-billed dinosaur over
100 ft long in Baja California. The duck-billed
dinosaurs were very prominent in the Late Creta-
ceous about 75 million years ago. Their average
length was about 30 ft, although specimens attain-
ing 50 ft were recently found in Asia.

The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the
Cretaceous has long puzzled paleontologists.
Thomas R. Worsley of the University of Washing-
ton proposed a link between dinosaur extinction
on the land and events in the ocean basins. During
the Mesozoic Era (225 million-65 million years
ago), excessive volcanism resulted in a warm,
cloudy climate especially favorable to the develop^
ment of large reptiles. The "Glomar Challenger
cores revealed that about 160 million years ago
marine plankton that extracted carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere evolved. As these flourished,
an ocean-wide layer of calcareous sediment, con
sisting of the tests or outer coverings of the plank-
ton, formed in the oceans, diminishing the green
house effect of the atmosphere through removal
of carbon dioxide which was incorporated in the
plankton tests. Worsley postulated that the
ing worldwide temperature decrease rendere
conditions so unhealthy for dinosaurs J
became extinct. (See Year in Review: ARCHAE-
OLOGY.)

224

Geochemistry and geochronology. Strata with
marine fossils associated with very fine-grained
quartz (silica) in the form of chert or flint have been
known for over a century from many parts of the
v/orld. Origin of the silica remains a mystery; such
rocks are the only major sediment type that has
not been seen forming today somewhere m the
earth or in the sea. Geochemical experiments by
Fred T. MacKenzie of Northwestern University.
Evanston, III., and Rudi Gees of Dalhousie Univer-
sity, Halifax, N.S., resulted in overgrowths of silica
crystals on finely ground quartz placed in natural
seawater from Bermuda. This was the first time
identifiable quartz had been formed directly from
seawater at surface conditions v/ithout aging on

amorphous precipitates.

Rubidium-strontium and lead dating of rocks
from southwestern Greenland revealed the oldest
rock yet discovered on the earth; gneissic granite
which crystallized 3,980,000,000 years ago. re
viously the oldest known rocks, dated a ou
3,500,000,000 years ago, were from Minnesota an
South Africa. Greenland is a fragment of the an-
cient continent that ruptured to form the nuc eus
of North America and Europe as the continents
drifted apart. The Greenland sample is consider-
ably younger than the 4,600,000,000 years pos u
lated for the earth-moon system, and its composi-
tion shows evidence of a complex earth history oi
crustal differentiation prior to its

The Precambrian Era, which ended 570 miMion
years ago, comprises the first 85°o o e
history. A group of scientists from Aostralm p
posed a formal division of the Late re

Erathem, designated the Adelaidean Syst j and

defined to range from the beginning of Late
Precambrian glaciation in Australia to th
ning of the Cambrian Period (spanning
roughly 750 million-570 million ^

is the hrst formal subdivision of be Pre^mbjian
into periods based on modern da ing

Geophysics

Geophysicists made cojitribu ^

two national policy debates m the U-S^ '

year. The Cannikin nuclear test
the Aleutian Islands was botly d'Spe ^ possibility
the central points of concern was the po
that it might trigger a large ability

quake. The second dcc=t'°" .,jcant nuclear

of seismologists to detect a 9 P jreaty
tests so that a comprehensive ban^^^

could be negotiated witho^th^^^^C^j.^^

on-site inspection A ;.,a,oab,o was probed

degree of accuracy actually

Courluy. O' D W Ou.nc, lo-dOP.

curved librous calcile growths in a pyritc concrctiorr
(black) are an example ol the redistribution ol minerals
in nonporous sedimentary rock subiectcd to stress
This phenomenon was recently explained as arising
from the dillusion ol ions along gram boundaries

by two symposia and vigorously debated within
government circles. Both of these topics were of
general interest, since they test the ability of
scientists to feed accurate information into the
decision-making process in an atmosphere that
is not always conducive to scholarly detachment.

Cannikin. Amchitka lies in an island a^c struc-
ture marking a place where a giant crustal plate
plunges back into the earth's mantle along a great
fault, capable of producing major earthquakes.
The island itself is so remote that even a large
earthquake probably would not have caused any
significant damage by ground shaking, but there
was concern that such an earthquake might trig-
ger a seismic sea wave, or tsunami, that could cause
high waves at distant sites around the Pacl.c

Basin. . , .

The distribution of small earthquakes located
bv special networks of seismograph stations
revealed that the great thrust fault m the region o!

Amchitka passed approximately 30 km (1km 0.62

mi) below the point of detonation, and stud.es o
ancient shorelines indicated that the island itself
v/as outside the region where large dotormations
had taken place in past great earthquakes. These
observations and the fact that no large tsunamis
had been acnerated in this region in histone time
led to the'conclusion that the test was not LVely
to trigger a larce. dangerous quake.

The Cann.kin nue'ear test was detonated on

241

Movement of the earth's crust in southern California is generally from southeast to northwest afong
the San Andreas fault. But at the point where the moving crust encounters the deep roots of the Sierra
Nevada, the blocks of crust move west, creating the transverse ranges and a bend in the fault.

Nov. 6, 1971, and the predicted seismologic ef-
fects were in agreement with the observations.
The test triggered only small earthquakes in the
immediate vicinity of the shot. Geophysicists were
relieved that their predictions had been borne out.
Had knowledge of the earthquake mechanism been
more precise, however, it might have been possible
to minimize some of the controversy.

Nuclear test detection. Negotiation of a com-
prehensive nuclear test ban treaty, under discus-
sion since the mid-1950s, has been blocked largely
because the major nuclear powers are reluctant
to permit on-site inspection. The possibility of
using the seismic waves generated by tests to
detect treaty violations has been recognized, how-
ever, and beginning in 1959 a massive research
program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of
Defense, was undertaken to develop seismic means
for detecting and identifying underground nuclear
explosions. More than S300 million was spent on
this research.

At the beginning of the program, most seismol-

ogists believed the task would be relatively easy,
but this proved not to be the case. As the re-
search progressed, it was found that complexities
in the structure of the earth distorted seismic
signals so that it was difficult to obtain accurate
locations for some events. Furthermore, it was not
always possible to tell the difference between an
explosion and an earthquake. Nevertheless, a
dramatic improvement was finally achieved. As
the number of seismograph stations in the world
increased and more data became available for
study, corrections could be made for perturbations
in the seismic signals caused by structural anom-
alies. This, in turn, led to an improved capability
to detect and locate nuclear explosions and to
distinguish them from earthquakes.

A series of studies initiated by Jack F. Evernden,
a seismologist then employed by the Department of
Defense, led to one of the most effective tech-
niques for identifying nuclear explosions. The
first seismic waves to arrive at a seismograph sta-
tion pass through the deep interior of the earth.

226

Earth sciences

where they travel in a mode similar to the prop-
agation of sound waves through the air. These are
called body waves. Another class of seismic waves,
arriving later, travels over the surface of the earth
much as water waves travel over the surface of a
body of water. The size, or magnitude, of a seismic
event can be estimated by measuring the amplitude
of either of these classes of waves at a number of
distant seismograph stations and correcting the
amplitude measurements for distance and other
peculiarities along the propagation path.

Through comparison of the waves from many
earthquakes and explosions, it was found that ex-
plosions tend to radiate surface waves of lower
amplitude than earthquakes of comparable size
as determined by the amplitude of the body waves.
Continued refinement of the corrections needed to
make these determinations and improvements in
instrumentation led to an almost perfect set o
discriminators to identify nuclear events. Pro ems
with smaller events were gradually reduced y e
development of larger arrays of very sensi ive
instruments, which are theoretically capable ot
detecting all earthquakes and explosions down o
approximately magnitude 4 as measured on

'^Th? seiSc signals from underground nuclear

explosions depend not only on the size o

but also on the medium in which t e .

detonated. In hard, water-saturated roc

all tests of a yield of one kiloton can be de ectea

In dry, alluvial rocks, nuclear tests y^'d mg 10

kilotons or more might be fired wi ou

by seismic means. However, when ^

in alluvial rocks, they frequently P'’° ^ rould be

teristic surface fractures or craters that coujd be

observed from satellites. The exac ^

detection remained a matter o

was generally conceded that 'ba seis gtjjijty

currently available would severe y i j

of a country to conduct a secret nuclear

'"Tarquake resistant cons.ruct^n^Dunng the
San Fernando, Calif., earthquake on ^eb. ^
an instrument located at the -—gfgiy one

sured a ground acceleration o app ^ ^
unit Of gravity (G). the highest ever r corde^
an earthquake. Engineers g ,onc-

usually describe ground acce era ' jj ^

tion of the force of the cf b = gr"utym

vertical acceleration of one

equal to the weight of an ' jfai50-lb

stable surface of the earth. Pc' ^ accelerating

man was standing at a pcm . j-uj doubled
at one G. he would feel ‘bat b'S ^
to 300 lb during ‘be ^3 ,hough he had

of motion reversed, he v-ou

zero v/eight and was floating through space. If
the ground acceleration is greater than one G.
objects can be thrown into the air. During great
earthquakes rocks have apparently been thrown
into the air and come to rest some distance from
their original positions. From this, and from some
observations of ground failure, seismologists
postulated that earthquakes might produce ground
accelerations of more than one G, although this
had never before been recorded.

The evidence of high accelerations during the
San Fernando earthquake, together with the fail-
ure of a number of modern structures, indicated
that an evaluation of existing building practices
was m order. Some engineers believed that the
high accelerations measured on Pacoima Dam
resulted from unusual local conditions that
focused or amplified the seismic waves. Hov/ever,
preliminary results of studies undertaken to
determine the nature of this amplification, if any.
failed to indicate any local conditions that could
account for the Pacoima measurements.

Portion of the San Andreas fault runs almost due cast
and west a lew miles north of Frazier Pari-. Cahl
The hilly region left of the fault line is moving upward
with respect to the plain, causing definite ollsets
in the courses of the two largest streams in the area

Earth sciences

This poses a difficult dilemma for engineers and
seismologists. If all structures are designed to
withstand forces as large as those observed at
San Fernando, the cost of construction would be
increased substantially. Furthermore, the high
accelerations raise serious questions about the
safety of some existing structures that were de-
signed in the belief that earthquake forces would
not approach one G. On the other hand, accel-
erations as high as one G are not likely to be
experienced by most buildings, even in great earth-
quakes. Even though the Pacoima Dam observa-
tion may not be unique in the sense that such
accelerations may be experienced in most earth-
quakes, the area in which they are experienced and
the percentage of buildings subjected to them are
likely to be quite small. Eventually, the risk that
some structures will be destroyed may have to be
accepted if the cost of earthquake-resistant design
is to be kept at an acceptable level.

The question of acceptable risk becomes par-
ticularly acute for certain critical structures such
as nuclear power plants and dams, which have a
potential for causing damage far beyond the
structures themselves. One possible approach is
to identify in advance those regions that might
be prone to very large accelerations and to avoid
such sites as much as possible. Another is to pay
the price of higher costs for buildings located in
those areas. It was too early to project all of the
Implications, but clearly the San Fernando earth-
quake would have a considerable effect on earth-
quake-resistant design for many years to come.

Earthquake prediction. One of the most attrac-
tive possibilities for reducing the danger from a
great earthquake is prediction of the approximate
time and location in advance. A program of re-
search in earthquake prediction was proposed in
1965 by a panel headed by Frank Press of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a
modest level of formal research was undertaken at
that time. In response to the San Fernando earth-
quake and rising public concern about earth-
quake hazards, proposals for a greatly expanded
program were introduced in Congress.

There are numerous reports of phenomena
observed prior to great earthquakes, although
many are undoubtedly unreliable. Soviet re-
searchers have discovered changes in the velocity
of seismic waves propagating through the epi-
central zones prior to the occurrence of some large
earthquakes. Changes in the ground level and
magnetic field have been reported by researchers
in Japan and the Soviet Union, and these may be
useful. In the United States there have been a few
isolated reports of phenomena that might be
precursors. However, the U.S. program has con-

centrated on achieving a better understanding
of the fundamental process in the expectation
that, if precursory signals do exist, they will be
discovered in this way.

One center for this research is the U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey’s National Center for Earthquake
Research located in Menlo Park, Calif. This group
has deployed dense networks of seismometers
and measured strain and tilt in a region extending
south from San Francisco to Parkfield, a distance
of approximately 200 km. The research of this
group and others clearly demonstrates that the
San Andreas Fault, the most likely location of
future large earthquakes, is currently moving more
or less continuously over part of its length. Pre-
sumably, where the fault is continuously creeping,
at least a portion of the strain is being released
by a nondestructive mechanism. Where the fault
is locked, particularly in the section north of San
Francisco, it is believed that strain is accumulating
and the potential for a great earthquake is in-
creasing.

By determining the accurate locations of very
small earthquakes (microearthquakes), 4,000 to
5,000 of which occur each year in the region being
studied, it is possible to define a three-dimensional
picture of the geometry of the fault zone. Further,
studies of historical data suggest that no large
earthquakes have occurred in California without
being preceded by some microearthquake activity.
Although not yet proven, the corollary is probably
true. That is, if a given region or length of the
fault zone does not presently have any micro-
earthquakes at all, that portion of the fault zone is
not likely to produce a great earthquake in the
future.

Traditional surveying methods, supplemented by
the use of an instrument called the geodolite,
which employs a laser beam to measure distances
between two points, have been used to track the
current deformation of large blocks of the earth’s
crust in California. These measurements confirm
the fact that the portion of California west of the
San Andreas is moving northward at a rate of one
to two inches per year, and an increase in the den-
sity of these measurements is revealing details
of the pattern of movement and showing how the
rate of movement varies from place to place. The
measurements also show the pattern of other
complexities of the San Andreas fault system.

New research proposals are based on a major
extension of these methods. A combination of
surface geologic mapping and microearthquake
studies would be used to identify the currently
active faults. Once identified, these faults would
be repeatedly resurveyed to determine the nature
of ongoing deformations. Even if the exact time

228

Earth sciences

of future earthquakes cannot be predicted, the
identification of currently active faults, together
v/ith an estimate of their potential for producing
large earthquakes, could be of practical value.

Plumes. The island of Hawaii is being formed by
volcanic activity that is bringing molten rock from
a depth of at least 60 km and depositing it on the
flanks of great volcanoes. This island is the east-
ernmost and only currently active volcanic island
in the Hawaiian chain. Geologists studying the
other islands have determined that each has been
formed by a similar process.

W. Jason Morgan, associate professor of geo-
logical and geophysical sciences at Princeton,
suggested a possible mechanism to explain the
origin of the islands. He believes they are the
result of great vertical upwellings of material,
called plumes, rising from deep within the earth
in an approximately cylindrical column. According
to his theory, the crust of the whole Pacific Ocean
is sliding slowly over these fixed plumes at a rate
of approximately two centimeters per year, thus
accounting for the succession of islands.

—John H. Healy

Hydrology

The recent rapid pace of research in hydrology and
related water-resources fields continued during
1971-72. One index of the pace was the large num-
ber of national, regional, and international sym-
posia. Prominent among these were meetings on
the following subjects; Man-Made Lakes (Nash-
ville, Tenn.): Mathematical Models in Hydrology
(Warsaw); Water Balance in Semi-Closed Sea
Bays (Moscow): Surface and Groundv/ater Pollu-

tion (Moscow): Hydraulic Research and Its Impact
(Paris): Hydrology of Fractured Rocks (Washington,
D.C.); and Stochastic Hydraulics (Pittsburgh, Pa.).

Organizational changes. The increased rate of
research was matched by changes in the associated
institutional structures. In the United States, the
past few years witnessed the establishment of the
Water Resources Council, the National Water
Commission, the Environmental Protection Agency,
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration, and the Office of Water Resources Re-
search, together with Water Resources Research
institutes in each of the 50 states and Puerto Rico.
These, and other federal and state agencies,
spurred by the increased awareness of local,
regional, and national v/ater problems in the U.S.,
operated generally v;ithin the framework of a report
issued by the Committee on Water Resources
Research in the Office of Science and Technology.
This report, "A Ten-Year Program of Federal Water
Resources Research," was issued in 1966. Because
of the progress and institutional changes since
1966, the program was being revised. The first step
in the revision vras a survey of v/afer-research
programs in the universities.

The International Hydrological Decade (IHD)
in 1972 was in its eighth year. At its latest (1971)
session, the IHD Coordinating Council stressed the
need to complete documents and publications
fulfilling its program by the time the Decade ends
in 1974. These reports were prepared to guide hy-
drological research and education in all countries,
particularly developing ones. One of the principal
benefits of the IHD program to date has been the
increase in the number and functions of regional
groups dealing with water problems common to

Bight, alter a AA-mi stretch ol Crow Creek m Tenr,esscc was rechanr^cled lor Hood control b,olog<sts
Who visited the area lound the stream nearly Ideless and termed ,t an -ecologmal disaster. Lett,
an untouched portion ol Crow Creek atm provides a home lor rwnbow trout and wood ducks

c'-ti Cc

Earth sciences

two or more countries. In addition to the Nordic
Council, which had been established for several
years, there was an International Commission for
the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin, an international
group to study the water balance of the Danube
basin, and an international cooperative program
to study the water balance of Baltic waters.

While moving vigorously ahead in research and
regional cooperation, hydrology was given another
twist in its search for identity as a clearly defined
scientific discipline. Hydrology's principal inter-
national group, the International Association for
Scientific Hydrology (lASH), changed its name and
broadened the scope of its interests to become the
International Association of Hydrological Sciences
(lAHS). The new name reflected the concern of
hydrologists with engineering, statistical, mathe-
matical, economic, political, and sociological
disciplines where these activities affected man’s
use of the available water resources.

Research efforts. The new name also responded
to the increasing concern in many countries for
the quality of the environment. This concern par-
ticularly focused attention on the need to maintain
and improve the quality of atmospheric, surface,
and underground waters. Rainfall in Europe, for
example, became increasingly corrosive over
broader areas between 1956 and 1966. Rain and
snow with a pH of 5.5-5. 0 fell on parts of the
Netherlands, Belgium, eastern England, and the
North Sea in 1956. (The pH scale measures acidity
and alkalinity, with 7.0 representing pure water at
25° C; lower figures indicate increasing acidity.) By
1966, an area nearly as large received precipitation
with a pH of 4. 5-4.0 — and in spots as low as pH
2.8— while the area receiving a rainfall with a pH of
5.5-5.0 grew to extend from Great Britain on the
west to the western border of the Soviet Union on
the east, and from southern Norway and Sweden
south across West Germany almost to Switzerland.
Potentially the effects of the increased pH are
multiple and complex, including changing the
leaching rates in soils, acidification of lakes and
rivers, corrosion of structures, and modification of
metabolic systems of organisms. In southern
Norway, for example, salmon runs have been
eliminated in some streams because the increas-
ing acidity has prevented salmon eggs from de-
veloping. Some data indicate that the northeastern
United States has been similarly affected.

Increasingly extensive compilations of data show
that the pollution of rivers and lakes has continued
v/ith little abatement in recent years. Although
the problem is common throughout the U.S., it is
as yet critical only in selected areas. Among the
difficult decisions to be made are those that dif-
ferentiate betv/een levels of pollution that are

"only” undesirable and those that are definitely
toxic.

In partial response to this problem, U.S. Pres.
Richard M. Nixon and Canadian Prime Minister
Pierre Elliott Trudeau signed a joint U.S. -Canadian
agreement to clean up the Great Lakes. The treaty,
called the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement,
set stringent standards for the quality of the Great
Lakes waters and also established a timetable for
meeting them. The treaty pinpointed five objectives:
to free the waters from substances that enter as a
result of human activities and from harmful sludge
deposits; to free the waters from floating debris,
including oil; to free the waters from undesirable
colorations and odors; to free the waters from
materials toxic to man or aquatic life; and to free
the waters from an excess of nutrients that enter
as a result of human activities and result in un-
desirable growths of weeds and algae.

To provide an improved comprehensive base of
hydrological information for the management of
the water of Lake Ontario and its basin, the U.S.
and Canada launched the International Field Year
for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) on March 30, 1972. This
program comprised an integrated series of studies
and investigations on five major components of the
hydrology of Lake Ontario and its basin: the ter-
restrial water balance, the atmospheric water
balance, the heat-energy balance, lake circulation,
and the distribution of chemical constituents and
life forms. Several governmental agencies and
universities on both sides of the border are in-
volved. The IFYGL was expected to accumulate
masses of data, some of which would take years to
analyze, synthesize, and report. The program was
organized, however, to make the actual data
available at the earliest possible time through two
data-management centers, one in each country.

In a somewhat different category was another
proposal to collect large amounts of hydrological
data during the last half of 1972. The first U.S.
Earth Resources Technology Satellite, ERTS-A,
was designed to provide information for several
hydrological and water-resources experiments.
These included interpretation of ERTS spectral
imagery in the preparation of hydrological maps of
arid lands; the practicality of using satellites to
transmit water data from surface stations to central
data-processing facilities; evaluation of hydro-
logical hazards along the Alaska Pipeline corridor;
delineation of boundaries of regional wetlands; the
evaluation of soil moisture in the Lake Ontario
basin; changes in snow cover in the Pacific North-
west; relationships of changes in the quantity of
runoff in the Potomac River; and changes in land
and water distribution in the Everglades in Florida.

—Leo A. Heindl

230

Electronics

The epoch-making visits of U.S. Pres. Richard
Nixon to the People's Republic of China and to the
Soviet Union threw a spotlight on recent advances
in electronics technology's oldest branch, tele-
communications. China, through its government s
choice, had remained isolated from most of the
world for a quarter century. But with Nixon's visit
it found itself the center of attention of the mass
communications media of the world s technologi-
cally most advanced nations. To anticipate the
demand, the Chinese government contracted with
a number of Western firms for facilities and serv-
ices to cover Nixon's visit.

An Intelsat 4 communications satellite went into
service over the Pacific Ocean, faking up traffic
that had been carried by the smaller Intelsat 3.
Some 850 circuits between 15 earth stations were
transferred to the new satellite. A second ground
station was installed in Shanghai, supplementing
one previously delivered to Peking. The second
station also featured Western-made video and
voice circuits, microwave terminals, and other
equipment capable of handling television, tele-
phone, and teleprinter transmissions, all of which
were being expanded and were intended to re-
main in service for international communications
following the visit. International divisions of four
U.S. firms provided television coverage to viewers
in America and elsewhere on a rotating basis m
accordance with special authorizations V ®
Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

Mobile communications. The FCC also figured
importantly in several domestic rulings. O"®
cerned mobile communications, especia y
moving automobiles and
been limited to 33 channels totaling a ou
Hertz (MHz) in bandwidth, around 35. I SO- ^ 5
MHz. This provided a somewhat ^

tern in which the police, fire, taxica , a
dispatch services in some U.S. metropo ' ^

tended to interfere with one another: ® _

higher frequency range, where grea er , . .
(and hence more services) could be accommodated
without "crosstalk." had long been 'nd cated^ln
1971, the FCC allocated a total
806 to 881 MHz) to mobile ,0 ‘ ents

ing exciting o" pLticular interest

Among them was a system o h , ynrk Citv
,0 m/hl, congest.^ »re»s

in which the mobile radios ot s

single Irnnsmillcr. .1 iccIiniQue.

in anoins, s,Um basca on

computers are used to com r jn

geographical "cells" approxima e ^

shape. Three low-power switching units arelo.-.c

Photograph taker) by starlight was made with the aid
ot a small, scll-contained. direct-view image mterisiher
The intcnsilicr brightens an image by converting weak
incoming light to electrons which are amplilicd and
reconverted to visible light

in alternate corners of the hexagon and com-
municate by radiotelephone with mobile units
operating within their reach: also several switching
units, provided they are sufficiently distant from
one another, can use the same frequency, so that a
limited band can serve a large number of clients
("frequency reuse"). Selection of the switching
unit nearest to the mobile user to be contacted is
automated, as is switching to a new frequency
when the mobile user moves to an adjacent cell.
As the density of users grows, the hexagons can be
further subdivided into a more dense honeycomb.

Introduction of such services remained in the
future. But some of the individual features were
being used on a limited basis in existing systems.
For instance, on the new high-speed Metroliner
trains between New York City and Washington.
DC American Telephone and Telegraph Co.
(AT & T) as early as 1969 installed pay telephones
that automatically switch calls from one radio-
telephone channel to another as the tram moves

im zone to zone.

Data transmission. Another important FCC
tion was the Specialized Carrier Decision, in-
ided to stimulate competition with AT £ T's
minant Bell Telephone system in the mcro.-s-
3 ly important field of computer and other data
msmission. Among other things, the decision
5 uld provide for the entry of earners with no
terest in the transmission of speech into the
-rative telephone ma'ket and force established
impanics to permit the interconnection of cus-

23 1

Electronics

Courtesy, GTE Sylvanio

Newly developed laser capable
ot operating live to seven years
in a communications satellite
is powered by sunlight. Solar
energy is collected by a 24-in.
mirror and directed into the end
of the laser (center). Lenses
and mirrors collect and focus
rays of the sun, which stimulate
material in the laser to produce
beams for carrying voice, data,
television, and other
communications between
satellites and earth.

tomer-owned terminal facilities with existing tele-
phone networks. There was widespread skepticism
about the effectiveness of stimulating competition
by government measures. The skeptics pointed
out that previous attempts in that direction had
proved only moderately successful, at least from
the customer's viewpoint; even when an alternate
service was required to avoid monopoly (as for
domestic telegraph and communication-satellite
services), it often appeared that Bell could have
done the job cheaper. Moreover, potential new-
comers were said to be interested in competing
only for the most profitable long-haul services,
which might ultimately result in higher charges
for less profitable local services, overcrowding of
existing facilities, and the establishment of in-
competent firms.

Representatives of new Bell competitors, among
whom Microwave Communications Inc. and Data
Transmission Co. (Datran) were the most promi-
nent, retorted that none of these charges was true.
Datran spent S10 million over the four years since
its formation in 1968 to plan and design a network
that would ultimately serve 35 cities and cost S400
million to construct— yet the firm was still two years
from earning its first dollar; thus, the cost of com-
peting against the giants would be sufficient reason
to keep out get-rich-quick operators, and in any
case the FCC would not approve carriers who failed
to meet stringent financial requirements. As to
jeopardy to local services, the revenues from data
transmission were expected to increase tenfold
during the 1970s. from S500 million to S5 billion a

year. Thus, there would be more than enough
business for several carriers and no justification
for intrastate rate increases based on the conten-
tion that the new entrants were siphoning off the
most profitable interstate business.

Meanwhile, the Bell system was advancing its
own research and development to meet future
demand in data communications. Its Canadian
associate was experimenting with an entire digital-
data network (known as Project 99). Already link-
ing Toronto, Ottawa, and Calgary, the network was
slated to be expanded to Halifax in the east and
Vancouver in the west, so that it would become a
coast-to-coast facility. The economic constraints
in communicating with northern Canada are
greater than in more densely populated areas,
since there are fewer potential customers sepa-
rated by larger distances. Therefore, a system a
would meet their requirements economically v/oul
be sure to be viable in the U.S., Western Europe,
and Japan.

“The New Rural Society.” Thoughtful engines
also looked to electronic communications services

to reverse the centuries-old trend of migration rom
rural areas toward cities. As early as 1962. J. «■
Pierce proposed that much of the time now spen
in travel, especially to and from work, cou
saved by substituting communications for trave^
through such services as "face-to-face or 9''°^P
to-group sound and vision, safely encrypte o
preclude eavesdropping, documents transmi e
by rapid facsimile or by data devices, some con ro
or manipulation at a distance . . . equivalent to

232

Electronics

operating a computer, turning the pages of a
catalog, or moving from department to depart-
ment in a store while shopping. With cheap enough
communication, students could attend classes by
television." Now, a decade later, another U.S.
engineer, Peter Goldmark (the inventor of the long-
playing record and of electronic video recording,
or EVR, for the home), suggested that the trend
toward urbanization could be reversed by planning
for what he dubbed The New Rural Society, v/hich
would imaginatively apply modern communications

to make rural life more attractive.

A tentative start toward such a society had al-
ready been made in Britain, where the government
was undertaking a study of the feasibility of dis-
persing some of its offices out of London. The
study was directed toward maximizing the fiscal
and social benefits and minimizing what was
termed "communications damage" arising from
the absence of face-to-face contacts. An interest-
ing approach to the problems involved was to
adjust the solution to prescribed amounts of funds
available: how much could be accomplished by
telecommunications "packages" costing the same
as normal telephone services (T), four times that
amount (4T), and sixteen times (IST)? Prelimina^
estimates showed that 47 could provide ou
speaking, audio conferences, and transmission ot
documents. Going to 167 would provide two-way
television communications of standard broadcas
quality. The next step would be to classify existing
face-to-face contacts into those which could be
carried out by phone, those which would require a
47 system, those which v/ould require .
those which would still have to be face ° ® '

Similar planning on an even more am
scale was taking place in the U.S., w ere sy

engineers talked about integrating energy l ow

v/aste flow, information flow, and
into a single, optimized system in w ic '
tion flow would become a viable
moving people and things and to t e co

of energy. Bell Laboratories announced that it had

evolved a method of video ^ -gej in

two groups of nine conferees each '

two Lparate locations. Three unattended came

in each room provide uninterrupted coverage ^/.th

out operators or other ments durino

In summary, electronics h-iracter“-

the past year highlighted an en^.^/S'ng cham^^^^^^^

istic: a stage at which "hardware ' in

less prominent than ^gse communica-

novel ways that promised to qmona the

tions between city and country and among

nations of the world.

See also Year in Review:

COMMUNICATIONS.
—Charles Susskmd

Environmental sciences

The environmental movement, launched with
spectacular bravado and fueled by intense popular
enthusiasm, was brought down to earth during the
year. Dreams of easy solutions had drifted away. In
their place were tough and complex political
choices, economic analyses, lawsuits, legislation,
technological development, and scientific re-
search.

Challenge to growth. The change was graphi-
cally illustrated by the appearance of several widely
discussed treatises on environmental dilemmas.
Two of them, based on a series of computer mod-
els of the whole world, made some startlingly
gloomy predictions, given current trends in de-
velopment, environmental degradation, and popu-
lation growth.

One, World Dynamics, was written by Jay W.
Forrester, a Massachusetts Institute of Technology
engineering professor and pioneer in systems
analysis. A similar and more widely publicized
book. The Limits to Growth, was based on a study
sponsored by the Club of Rome and directed by
another MIT professor, Dennis L. Meadows. "If the
present growth trends in world population, indus-
trialization, pollution, food production, and re-
source depletion continue unchanged," it warned,
"the limits to growth on this planet will be reached
sometime within the next 100 years." It stated,
ominously, that the "most probable result will be a
rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both

Oil-eating bacteria (light globules) devour drops
of oil in a test flask. Laboratory tests have
identified 62 species of bacteria that eat oil,
and scientists envision a day when freeze-dried bacteria
can be stockpiled for use on oil spills.

Ccunrty, Dr. Thomaj CrUtill, U.S. Novy

population and industrial capacity." The Limits to
Growth added, however, that man can successfully
opt for a state of "equilibrium" by stabilizing popu-
lation and capital investment.

Concepts and conclusions in Worid Dynamics
and The Limits to Growth were challenged by a
number of experts. Nevertheless, the books raised
the level of debate on the complex issues involved,
and many who had dismissed ecological warnings
as a bird watchers' fad were being forced to re-
examine their ideas. (See Year in Review: SCIENCE,
GENERAL.)

There were other impressive challenges to un-
harnessed growth and inadequate environmental
protection. A long report entitled "A Blueprint for
Survival,” published in the January 1972 issue of
the British magazine Ecoiogist, warned of the
"breakdown of society and of the life support sys-
tems on this planet.” The report was endorsed by
33 of the United Kingdom's most prestigious scien-
tists. In March 1972 the Commission on Population
Growth and the American Future, established two
years earlier by the U.S. Congress, released its
report. The commission concluded that "no sub-
stantial benefits would result from continued
growth of the nation’s population” and called for
a federal population-control policy.

Further thrust was added to the environmental
movement by Barry Commoner, a biologist and
director of Washington University’s Center for the
Biology of Natural Systems, with, his book The
Closing Circle. In it. Commoner describes in detail
how technological change in many industries—
particularly during the post-World War II period
—has centered on processes that increase pollu-
tion and that use a growing amount of electric
power. He argues that there has been no compen-
sating increase in the real value of products and
services.

Environmental warnings and remedial activities
were not unopposed, however. Critics challenged
pollution control standards as unnecessarily strict,
stressed the high costs to the public, and cited
companies that had been forced to close down and
jobs that had been lost. The running debate only
served to emphasize how little man really knows
about pollutants and health, about practical scien-
tific and economic techniques of environmental
protection, about the effect of controls on the
economy and employment, and about the ramifica-
tions of slowing or stopping growth.

Pollution and health. A joint study summarizing
the known effects of environmental pollutants on
health was issued in January 1972 by the U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
(HEW) and the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Among the findings:

Environmental sciences

Couftcty, US D'*partmcn? of A^r.cufJurr

Reesimermis nielseni nematode colled inside the thorax
ol a southern house mosquito hills its host as it emerges
to molt, mate, and reproduce. Nematodes have provided
good mosquito control in selected areas around the
world with Iresh, unpolluted water.

• "Pollution control should diminish the fre-
quency and severity of acute respiratory disease,
acute gastroenteric disease, and chemical intoxi-
cations of the central nervous system. Environ-
mental aggravation of existing heart and lung
diseases should also be substantially reduced.

• Cancer studies demonstrate that ' there are
striking differences in cancer incidence from place
to place in the world . . . and svhen persons mi-
grate, they appear to adopt the propensity for
cancer which is characteristic of their new home.
Also, studies of workers in some occupations re-
veal a number of substances that produce cancers,
and cancers have been induced in test animals by
the application of many substances. Thus, the
study says, there is "strong evidence that environ-
mental factors have a significant role in cancer
production."

• Although cigarette smoking explains about
90% of chronic bronchitis and pulmonary emphy-
sema, air pollution is associated with a derr^n
strable excess" of chronic respiratory' disease, e
culprits implicated are sulfur oxides, nilroycn
oxides, and particulates.

• "Atmospheric sulfur oxides, particulates and
photochemical oxidants aggravate the frequency
and severity of asthma symptoms in persons with
this disease. . . . Ambient air pollutants have been
associated v/ith a significantly increased frequency
of acute respiratory disease.”

• "Decreased lung function due to air pollution
and increased sodium intake from polluted v/aters
can put a strain on the heart and cause exacerba-
tion of cardiovascular disease." There are also
suspicions that the carbon monoxide emitted by
cars IS linked with heart disease.

Concern also mounted over the high incidence
of lead poisoning— in some cases leading to mental
retardation— among urban children. In addition
to the traditional villain, chipping lead-based paint,
increasing blame was attached to the toxic ex-
hausts of automobiles burning leaded gasoline.
"Some 400.000 inner city children are believed to
be suffering from high blood lead levels," said a
federal interagency report, "Our Urban Environ-
ment,” in September 1971.

Significantly, the HEW-EPA study v/as filled v/ith
warnings about man’s ignorance of the health
effects of pollutants and the need for further re-
search. "The causes of our three major killers
—heart disease, cancer, and stroke— have not been
identified,” the study noted. V/ithout more knowl-
edge, the effect of pollution on these diseases
cannot be assessed. The continued Introduction
and wide distribution of thousands of chemical
and physical substances of unknown environ-
mental and health impact constitutes a "hazard
of serious proportions." There is need for a more
sophisticated, systematic screening of agents
entering the environment and for assessment of
their "potential harm."

Clean air standards. The battle over clean air
standards in the U.S. began to take shape as each
state drew up a plan to implement the strict pro-
visions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970.
These implementation plans wore sent to EPA for
approval. Under Delaware's plan, for example,
Delmarva Power fi Light Co. v/ould bo required to
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions at a plant in Dela-
ware City. The company filed an appeal, v/here-
upon EPA issued a federal notice ol violation,
making Delmarva the first company so cited under
the 1970 taw.

Congress had warned that many cities vrould
have to enforce drastic curbs on automobiles in
order to attain the air quality standards required
for 1975. but the proposed state plans were gen-
erally timid on that score. In the District of Colum-
bia. the City Council did p'opose a Si per day
downtown parking tax on commuters as one way
to help meet the standards— as welt as to raise

235

Environmental sciences

revenues. Lusty opposition from a number of busi-
ness oroanizations at the council’s hearings sug-
gested that it would be a stouthearted local govern-
ment that would undertake to tell America’s spoiled
drivers they could not go where they wanted when
they wanted. It remained to be seen whether EPA
could provide the necessary muscle.

Some encouragement came from Italy where,
after a week-long experiment with free bus and
streetcar service had brought a dramatic decline
in traffic on congested streets, authorities in Rome
announced in April 1 972 that the free service would
be made permanent during rush hours. They added
that cars would be banned in stages from the two-
square-mile historic and business center of the
city. Though traffic problems had sparked the
move, the ecological potential for other cities did
not go unnoticed.

As challenges to the uncurtailed use of autos
increased, so did interest in an important alter-
native-rapid mass transit. Pressure rose to in-
crease federal financial aid for mass transit sys-
tems. Chief target was the enormous Highway
Trust Fund, set up in 1956 as the source of federal
aid to the states for highway purposes.

Meanwhile, auto manufacturers, insisting they
could not produce cars for the 1975 model year
that v/ould meet federal emissions standards for
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, applied for
the maximum one-year extension of the deadline
to 1976. The major companies continued work on
catalytic mufflers or afterburners, designed to
cause more complete combustion of pollutants
that now escape into the air. One problem was
that, as more of the other pollutants are burned
up, increasing amounts of nitrogen oxides are
formed. Another is that the lead from leaded gaso-
line chokes the mufflers. The auto industry asked
for assurances that lead-free or low-lead gasoline
would be available in time for the 1 975 models, and
on Feb. 23, 1972, EPA took the first step to require
that it be sold by refiners and large gas stations.

The auto makers also claimed that cars with
pollution-control devices would be expensive,
costly to operate, and less responsive than current
models. Environmentalists tended to be skeptical
about the figures cited, but many of the drawbacks
were real enough and served to reinforce the
widely held belief that much more drastic measures
would be necessary. Auto manufacturers would
have to v/rench themselves away from the internal-
combustion engine or the public v/ould have to
wrench itself away from the automobile.

Hundreds of firms around the world were ac-
celerating efforts to develop "clean" cars. Major
candidates were cars driven by a gas turbine, by
steam, by electricity, by natural gas. by liquefied

petroleum gas, or by hybrid engines that would
permit the driver to shift from one fuel to another,
depending on the circumstances. A gas turbine car
made by Williams Research Corp. began under-
going extensive tests in New York City in February
1972. The manufacturer of Mercedes-Benz, which
already mass-produced diesel-engine cars with
lov/er emissions, tested a city bus that ran on natu-
ral gas. In January a steam-driven bus began ex-
perimental operations in the Oakland-Berkeley
area of California.

There were several major air pollution episodes
during the year, including one in east central New
Jersey in September 1971 and another in Birming-
ham, Ala., two months later. In Birmingham, EPA
invoked the emergency provisions of the Clean Air
Act for the first time, leading a federal judge to
order a two-day shutdown of 23 large industrial
plants. EPA sought funds in its fiscal 1973 budget
to develop analytical models of urban areas to
show the relationships between pollution emis-
sions. atmospheric conditions, and the ambient
air quality. In a taste of things to come, Utton In-
dustries v/as developing an experimental compu-
terized air pollution monitoring system for Los

Angeles County.

The unclean waters. The U.S. Congress, in
effect, conceded failure in the nation’s efforts to
clean up its waters by moving to completely re-
vamp the basic federal water pollution control law.
Proposed legislation would depart from the exist-
ing system under which states specify the uses
to be made of a body of water, decide what pollu-
tants would be compatible with those uses, and
prescribe necessary control measures. Bills passed
by both the U.S. Senate and House of Representa-
tives would rely chiefly on a permit program setting
effluent limits for specific sources of pollution.

In other respects, however, the Senate and House
bills were so divergent that many despaired of any
possibility for effective agreement Among the
major differences was the Senate bill’s
that all pollutant discharges be eliminated dV
except when this could not be done "at reasonable
cost.” The aim was to make all waters clean enoug
to sv/im in. The House bill was more lenient

Major emphasis in v/ater-pollution control con-
tinued to be placed on municipal waste-treatme
plants and on modifications and processes o
move higher percentages of pollutants. P®'"
out that research along these lines "has faiie
provide a single significant technological innova-
tion" (in the words of a Ralph Nader group study),
many environmentalists were urging that mo
attention be paid to "closed systems invo vm
the benign disposal or recycling of sludge
other v/ater wastes as fertilizer, through sp y

236

Environmental sciences

irrigation" and by filtering the wastes through the
ground.

In another controversy involving water pollution,
confusion over v/ashday detergents reached new
peaks. After phosphates had been implicated in the
"death” of lakes and streams, more and more
jurisdictions were implementing bans on the sale
of high-phosphate detergents. The detergent
industry, meanwhile, came up with some highly
effective cleaning agents to use as substitutes;
nitrilotriacetic acid, or NTA, and caustic soda.

Just as manufacturers were phasing out phos-
phates, however, studies began to raise the sus-
picion that NTA and caustic soda v/ere potentially
dangerous to humans and perhaps to their environ-
ment as well. The industry voluntarily stopped
using NTA. Then, in September 1971, the federal
government did an about-face and suggested that
housewives return to detergents with phosphates
as the lesser of two evils. Housevrives were under-
standably perplexed, and some environmentalists
suggested a return to soap.

Solid wastes. Governments and industries con-
tinued to grapple on a more or loss piecemeal
basis v/ith the myriad problems of solid waste
disposal and recycling. Much attention was focused
on the use of municipal solid wastes to produce
energy. In one of a number of demonstration pro-
tects. the Union Electric Co. in St. Louis, Mo.,
planned to grind up refuse, mix it v.iith pulverized
coal, and use the mixture to fire a boiler and gener-
ate electricity.

"The United States pays over S3 billion to dis-
pose of the solid waste residue of our affluent
society," Richard C. Bailie, professor of chemical
engineering at West Virginia University, told the
annual meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science in December 1971.
"This residue has a heating value equivalent to
300,000 tons of coal a day with a sulfur content of
0.2 to 0.3°,o. Our cities are literally being buried
under the thing they desperately need— lov/-sulfur
fuel." He added that processes have been de-
veloped that offer the promise of effectively using

Psychologist John Calhoun
stands among some ol the 2,200
mice bred in a physically optimal
environment. As the population,
which started with lour pairs,
increased, the mice began to
sutler Irom a "lack ol
psychological space " Aberrant
behavior, homosexuality, anxiety,
and aggression increased, while
reproduction and the capacity
tor reproduction decreased As
the members ol this colony d'O.
there will be no replacements
lor them From experiments such
as this, behavioral scientists
believe they can extrapolate
insights into such hum, an
conditions as urban crowd ng

Environmental sciences

refuse for at least a fraction of the nation's energy
needs. Along the same lines, Hinrich L Bohn of
the University' of Arizona, in the December 1971
issue of Environment magazine, said that the
organic wastes of animal feedlots, which pose an
enormous disposal (and water pollution) problem,
could be converted to methane gas for a large new
fuel supply.

Marketing of recycled paper continued to rise.
In an experimental project, the city of Franklin, O.,
was selling not only recycled paper but also steel
cans and other metals to private industry— all of
them from the plant that handled the city’s solid
wastes. Soon it expected to sell recycled glass and
aluminum cans as well.

Work continued during the year on various meth-
ods for using solid wastes for paving roads A street
in Omaha, Neb., vras paved with "glasphalt," made
from crushed bottles. The federal government was
working on an experimental paving material com-
prising reclaimed rubber, bottles, garbage, lime,
fly ash from incinerators, and calcium sulfate, a
steel-processing waste. Michael D. Pibum of Rut-
gers University suggested in the April 1972 issue of
Natural Hislor)' magazine that glass from used

bottles be converted back to sand to rebuild eroded
beaches.

On the economic and political front, a number
of court fights were being waged over statutes
requiring deposits on drink containers. In Decem-
ber 1971 a county judge upheld the validity of the
first such law. a Bowie, Md,, ordinance requiring a
five-cent deposit on all beer and soft-drink con-
tainers, but the ordinance was not expected to be
enforced until further court challenges vrere
settled.

The pesticide controversy. Environmentalists
had long urged the adoption of biological or "inte-
grated pest control” techniques in place of chemi-
cal pesticides. These techniques include the use
of natural predators, pest diseases, sterilization,
sex attractants, and genetic manipulation— some-
times in combination with a judicious use of chemi-
cals. In his third environmental message, on Feb. 8,
1972, Pres. Richard Nixon said he was directing
half a dozen federal agencies to "launch a large-
scale integrated pest management research and
development program."

Lengthy EPA hearings and court appeals had
not laid to rest the thorny question of DDT use.

A bucket wheel excavstor with a digging cepecity of 730,000 cu yd per day exposes a leyer of lignite
during the course of strip mining operations in West Germany. The machine selectwely strips off and
saves the top layer of fertile loam, which is used for later reclamation.

Despite the imposition of some restrictions, it v/as
still being applied in large quantities by U.S. farm-
ers. EPA announced its intention to ban all use of
DDT, but the pesticide industry made an adminis-
trative appeal that resulted in the hearings. A fed-
eral court declined to suspend sales of DDT pend-
ing resolution of the issue. A decision was expected
from EPA in the near future, but it was likely to lead
to further court challenges. Efforts to ban aldnn
and dieldrin— other long-lived chemicals— were
going through the same process.

A special advisory panel reported to EPA in
September 1971 that even a complete ban on DDT
in the U.S. would not solve the problem because
of heavy worldv/ide use and dissemination, but it
recommended early curtailment, v/ith a goal of
"virtual elimination." Meanwhile, agricultural ex-
pert Norman Borlaug, vrinner of the 1970 Nobel
Peace Prize, fold a UN meeting in Rome in Novem-
ber 1971 that DDT was indispensable for health
and agriculture. Borlaug himself was sharply
criticized in return.

With DDT and other persistent pesticides under
fire, many were turning to toxic but short-lived
chemicals. One widely used pesticide recom-
mended as a safe substitute was carbaryl, sold as
Sevin. Some scientists feared carbaryl might turn
out to be hazardous, however. It was also one of
the many pesticides that are highly toxic to bees.
It was an irony of pesticide use that, under federal
law. the U.S. Department of Agriculture paid out
millions of dollars in indemnities to beekeepers for
honeybees lost as a result of nearby spraying, as
well as to dairy farmers and manufacturers for
milk products removed from the market because
they contain excessive residues of approved pesti-
cides.

The energy crisis, continued. Long-range
energy-environment problems were the subject of
intensive study. On several occasions during the
year. President Nixon called for a major effort to
find new sources of abundant, nonpolluting energy.
The administration requested increased funds in
fiscal 1973 for research on a variety of potential
sources, some of which had received relatively little
attention— liquid metal fast breeder nuclear re-
actors, controlled thermonuclear fusion, coal
gasification, solar energy, magnetohydrodynamics,
and geothermal power.

Energy problems were exacerbated by the very
real shortage of nonpolluting natural gas, the
environmental damage caused by strip mining
coal, the shortage of low-sulfur coal in manyarciis.
the constant threat of oil spills, and the potential
hazards of radiation or nuclear accident.

The federal government was seeking to en-
courage increased exp'oration and production of

S/,an court-,, (f.'DUSTPIAl PESEAPCm

-J L

general RtWltcH JM :.

flA POULWTIOll COMTKOI.

talVtClOH

"So lar. the only really clicctive smog lillcr ivc vo loung
IS the human lung "

offshore oil and gas, but it received a major setback
in December 1971 when a federal judge enjoined
the Department of the Interior from selling oil and
gas leases in the Gulf of Mexico. Citing the National
Environmental Policy Act, which requires prepara-
tion of a comprehensive "environmental impact
statement" for all federally funded projects, en-
vironmentalists argued— and the court agreed
—that Interior had not adequately considered
alternatives in the search for energy. A complete
study was expected to take months. Meanwhile,
environmentalists were poised to fight drilling off
the East Coast, which was still in the talking stage.

Conservation and citizens’ groups won a drama-
tic legal victory in their challenge of the Atomic
Energy Commission’s procedures for considering
environmental factors before licensing nuclear
plants. In a case involving the Calvert Cliffs plant
in Maryland, a federal court ordered the AEC to
revise its rules, and some power plan! construc-
tion was delayed. Pending were complex chal-
lenges of safety and radiation requirements, as v/cfl
as industry’s ability to deal with thermal pollution.

The long-delayed trans-Alaska oil pipeline pro-
ject was approved by the Department of the In-
terior. although the impact statement admitted the
probability of environmental damage. Actual con-
struction was awaiting action by the courts. Held
up. at least temporarily, because of inadequate im-
pact statements were some major highway con-
struction projects and a number of large dam. and
canal projects, such as the Tonnessee-Tombigbee
V.'atonvay m ALabama and .M'ssiss'pp' and the
Gillham Dam and reservoir m Ar’r.ansas. (See Yea'
in Review; FUEL AND FO’.VER,)

23?

Foods and nutrition

Courtesy, Royal Aircraft Estoblishment

/t stained-glass window is a target at We end of We
to simuiate We sonic booms of We Concorde supersonic transport piane. Preliminary tests
Wat We booms would not affect soundly constructed buildings.

The Stockholm conference. After four years of
intensive preparation, the first United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment was held
in Stockholm in June 1972. Advisory in nature, and
with no real power to enforce its recommendations,
it nevertheless served to dramatize the growing
worldwide awareness of environmental problems.

The conference was attended by delegates from
114 nations, representing some 90% of the world's
population. The Soviet Union and its closest allies
absented themselves to protest the exclusion of
East Germany from full participation, but it was
expected that even they would join in support of
the conference's aims. These were set forth in 26
principles, embodied in a "Declaration on the
Human Environment" which would be submitted to
the UN General Assembly for ratification. Also ap-
proved were a 200-point "action program" and a
recommendation to establish international ma-
chinery for coordinating environmental efforts.

The conferees were by no means in total agree-
ment. The developed and less developed countries
disagreed on priorities. China objected strongly to
the "principle" urging destruction of all nuclear
weapons, and there was acrimonious debate on
such political matters as the Indochinese war.
Despite their political differences, however, the

mferees did express a basic unanimity on the
■ed to protect the global environment. It would
. a good while before anyone could assess the
al effect of the conference, but unquestiona y
had forced many nations to begin giving serious
tention to their environmental Q^jgll

See also Feature Articles: SPECIES 'N
HE NOTORIOUS TRIO: MERCURY, LEAD, AND
ADMIUM.

Foods and nutrition

About 25% of the world's total
food supply is of animal origin-milk,
eggs. To obtain this amount of food from do
anfmals, as much food is needed thern n^the
form of cereals, legumes, and other fee .

consumed by humans. Thus, if 0"® ‘T-ra

part of the food used to feed mankind, the

fotal is larger than ever before,
roughly 4,000,000,000 tons. This means
is about one ton of food <0'' P®''®°"i,g-g pe-
However. there is still a precarious °

tween the world's food supply and its pop
Millions of persons still do not have eno g

240

Foods and nutrition

or the right kinds of it. Though at present there is
theoretically enough food for all, starving and
hungry populations can make little or no use of
these supplies due to factors largely beyond their
own control, such as disease, famine due to drought
or insects, war and unfriendly politics, bad social
and health standards, ignorance, and infirmities of
old age. Bad economic conditions, infertile land,
lack of transportation and storage facilities, and
overpopulation are also involved.

In the United States approximately S125 billion
were spent on food in 1972, with nearly a third of
this being spent for meals outside the home. Foods
at no cost or at reduced prices vrere offered to
approximately 15 million persons in the U.S. (or
about 7% of the population) by means of com-
modity food programs or food stamps.

More than 40 million school children (about 80°'o
of the total) were offered school food services
throughout the year in 90,000 schools. About 60^b
of these received federal assistance, including
funds for eight million children who received free
or reduced-price school meals. The experimental
school breakfast program continued to grow, with
a budget of more than $25 million a year.

In spite of this important government aid. which
exists in many countries, malnutrition continued
to be a serious problem in the U.S. and throughout
the world. Malnutrition in most of the so-called
developed and industrialized countries occurs in
such forms as obesity, anemia, decayed and weak
teeth, diet-related heart disease and diabetes,
alcoholism, and borderline nutrient deficiencies.

In the developing, less-industrialized countries
malnutrition is often more direct, showing up in the
form of simple food shortages with resulting defi-
ciencies of protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals.
Overeating of the wrong kinds of food was a prob-
lem everywhere.

Preliminary estimates of the dollar costs of mal-
nutrition (including all direct and indirect costs) in
the U.S. and countries with similar nutrition prob-
lems were placed at approximately $1.5 billion per
10 million population (for a total of about $30 bil-
lion in the U.S. per year). This amounted to nearly
half of all the nation's medical, dental, and health
costs, and about a fourth of all food costs.

Food consumption patterns In the U.S. Typical
of citizens in most modern countries, an average
individual in the U.S. normally oats a varied diet
based on cereal products, fruit and vegetables,
milk and milk products, and meat and legumes. In
the U.S. the consumption of red meat and poultry'
v/as steadily increasing while milk consumption
dropped considerably. Of great significance nutri-
tionally was that the consumption of concentrated
energy sources (sugars, alcohol, and pure fats)
continued at record high levels. In 1971 more than
one-third of the U.S. intake of calories came from
these sources, which are completely devoid of most
other important nutrients such as protein, minerals,
and B vitamins,

A detailed breakdown of the 1971 per capita
availability (before cooking) of food in the U.S..
based on U.S. Department of Agriculture figures,
appears in the Table. The amounts are given on a

Navaho nutrition aides prepare
a breaktast using USDA-donated
loads A recent agreement giving
the Navahos control
of rfic distribution program was
expected to achieve a more
equitable division of the load
among the 83.000 needy
individuals

Foods and nutrition

Pounds of available food commodities
per capita on a fresh basis

Average 1957-59

Meats (carcass weight,

1971

including bone and fat)

156.6

192.0

Beef

82.1

113.3

Veal

7.1

2.7

Lamb and mutton

4.4

3.2

Pork (not including lard)

63.0

72.8

Fish (edible weight)

10.5

11.2

Poultry

Eggs (pounds, at rate of

8 eggs/pound)

44,5

40.4

Chicken (ready to cook)

27.5

41.6

Turkey (ready to cook)

6.0

8.6

Dairy products

Cheese

7.9

12.2

Condensed and evaporated milk

14.8

6.8

Fluid milk and cream*

337.0

258.0

Ice cream

13.4

17.7

Fats and oils

Butter

8.2

5.0

Margarine

8.9

11.1

Lard

9.3

4.4

Shortening

11.4

17.0

Other edible fats and oils

10.8

18.6

Fruits

Fresh

Citrus

34.0

29.2

Apples (commercial)

21.0

16.8

Others (excluding melons)

40.5

35.0

Processed

Canned fruit

22.4

22.4

Canned juice

13.5

14.9

Frozen (including juices)

8.6

10.4

Dried

3.3

2.9

Vegetables

Fresh (commercial)

104.1

97.3

Canned (excluding potatoes)

43.3

51.3

Frozen (excluding potatoes)

6.6

9.1

Potatoes (fresh equivalent)

106.9

120.9

Sv/eet potatoes (fresh equivalent)

8.3

5.1

Grains

Cornmeal and flour

7.4

7.4

Corn syrup

9.4

16.6

Corn sugar

3.6

5.0

Wheat flour (including whole)

120.0

111.0

Wheat cereals

2.8

2.9

Rice, milled

5.4

7.6

Other

Coffee (green beans)

15.7

13.6

Tea

0,6

0.8

Cocoa beans

3.5

3.9

Peanuts (shelled)

4.6

5.9

Dry edible beans

7.7

6.0

Melons

25.1

21.7

White sugar, refined

96.1

10Z0

Total pounds 1,386.2

'Fluid milk equivalent (including dried milk).

1,364.3

fresh basis, thereby including the water content,
which ranges from 60 to 90% for most fresh foods.
These figures are compared with 1957-59 aver-
ages, and show such trends as a decline in avail-
ability of milk and an increase in meat.

Food science and technology. Probably more
than in any previous year, in 1972 the influence of
the consumer greatly affected the types of foods
made available to the public by the food industry.
Of special interest in this connection in the U.S.
were the proposals for voluntary labeling of food
products by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). Under these proposals, made as a result of
requests of various concerned groups, much more
nutritional information about a product could be
obtained from the product label (information on
the amount of calories, protein, and fat per serv-
ing). Detailed information about major vitamins and
minerals would also be given if present proposals
are approved.

There vvere many important food technological
advances during the past year. Among them was
the discovery of many new uses for "texturized
proteins” made from soybeans. These products, of
lower cost than meat (as low as 30 cents per
pound), were added to ground beef or meat-loaf
products, for example, in order to raise the levels of
protein and decrease costs. They were also used to
make imitation meat products, a development that
nutritional scientists were studying because the
texturized proteins contain very few vitamins and
minerals and thus do not provide full nutritive value.

Work continued on the improvement of low-cost
vegetable protein sources for human use, includ-

family food assistance programs
(millions of participants)

April

1970

April

1971

1 March
1972

April

1972

4.7 5.6

1 donated foods
I food stamps

10.3

14.4

15.0

14.8

ing those from soybeans, plant leaves, beans, nee.
sunflov/er meal, and rapeseed. Packaging and
manufacturing advances resulted in many new
products, such as frozen orange slices, frozen
meat and cheese specialties, dehydrated batter
mixes, frozen ethnic food, dry sauces, new canned
foods, specialized "health food" products (many
of v/hich are nov/ marketed in large supermarkets),
new desserts, and hundreds of other new commer-
cial convenient food items.

The growth of commercial and public food ser-
vice organizations in the United States was phe-
nomenal, and by 1971 had become a more than S40
billion business. Several private companies pro-
duced over 100 million meals per year, and some
authorities predicted that vnthin a few years more
than half the meals consumed by the American
public v/ould be prepared outside the home. Com-
mercial food services for refiremenf homes and
day-care centers in the U.S. were growing at a
particularly rapid rate.

The safety of food additives was given more than
the usual attention by government agencies in
1972. In the U.S. an entirely new appraisal was
being given to those additives designated as
"generally recognized as safe." specifically artifi-
cial colors and sweetners. The presence of uninten-
tional additives in food, such as synthetic diethyl-
stilbestrol, v/hich is fed currently to most all com-
mercial beef cattle (and which does not remain in
meat if removed from the food of the cattle one
week before slaughter), and of pesticide residues
from treatment of farm crops and animals were
under investigation. The widespread publication
by the FDA of the legal limitations of "filth" in
human foods (such as hair, rodent fecal matter,
insects, and worms) attracted much comment
from consumers and the food industry alike.

Nutritional advances. Basic discoveries in nutri-
tion continued to be made on a very broad front.
The trace mineral field continued to be productive.
During the past year Klaus Schwarz of the Veterans
Administration Hospital at Long Beach. Calif.,
confirmed that rats require the element tm in their
diet and also demonstrated that fluoride deficiency
in rats caused a 20‘’b depression in grov.th. the
latter finding, if confirmed, would bo a great im-
petus to the cause of fluoridation of water supplies.
Edith Carlisle of the University of California at Los
Angeles announced that silicon, the common in-
gredient of sand, was a dietary essential for the rat.

Also, in the nutrition area, the rapidly gro'.ving
interest of all citizens in the environment and in the
seeming lack of real concern of the food manu-
facturing and retailing interests in nutrition resulted
In much growth of the nev.’ "natural' foods rro'.e-
ment. Natural-food stores and restaurants ex-

Vo* ssri

fJowly dcvcIopccJ carbon rod work head is used with
an atomic absorption spcctrobhotomotcr to determine
the metal content oi load additives The sample is
syringed into the rod. dried, ashed, and atomized lor
analysis ot any or all o! SO metals that might bo present

panded at a rapid rale in most large cities, especially
around colleges and universities.

Nutritionists aoplauded the increased concern in
developing better eating habits but were troubled
over many false and misleading claims made about
foods and food supplements and about the un-
necessarily high prices paid for these foods. Ad-
herents of health diets generally consumed food of
high nutritional value, but in some cases food ex-
tremists and fanatics ate nutritionally poor d’ets lor
long periods of time. An example was the "seventh
stage" of the so-called Zen macrobiotic diet (con-
sisting chiefly of bro wn nee and a few veoctablos),
which can result in seve'c nutritional preb'ems.

In Docem.bei' 1971, the White House Conference
cn Aging recognized the importance of nutrition
in a properly fed aging soc ety by ca'lmg for in-
creased resea'ch on nutrit onp'cb'em.s of the aoed.
Espec-.a'ly important was the reso'ut'on that “the
Federat Government assum.? t.^-e resoons b.l'ty fo'
ma'-ino ad-;pu."te nutr.tmn a.'a'i.ab'e to a'' c’de'ly

Fuel and power

persons of the U.S. and its possessions." Means of
doing this, such as by food stamp programs, im-
proved nutrition education, improved food facili-
ties, and availability of food services, and by provid-
ing adequate income and housing were spelled
out in some detail.

About 10,000 research papers were published in
1972 in the food and nutrition field. Among the
areas of most active research were nutrition and
behavior, vitamin and mineral metabolism, nutri-
tion as it relates to blood lipids, disease and nutri-
tion interrelationships, measurement of the bio-
logical value of new foods for man, psychological
aspects of weight control, effects of high sucrose
intakes, vitamin D chemistry, and the effect of drugs
and alcohol on nutrient levels in the body.

The future. Since our most urgent need in the
food and nutrition area is the combating of human
suffering caused by malnutrition, nutritionists hope
that the future will bring a much greater concern
about this problem from national leaders, inter-
national health agencies, and the food industry.
Though the development of technological im-
provements and the uncovering of basic knowledge
in the field is extremely important, these alone are
not sufficient to feed the hungry millions. New and
attractive low-cost food sources will need to be
developed and new educational programs estab-
lished, the combination of which (with improved
economic conditions) is essential if an effective
start is to be made in the prevention of malnutrition.

—George M. Briggs

See also Feature article; NUTRITION AND THE
AMERICAN DIET.

Fuel and power

Fuel and power matters claimed a growing share of
attention during 1971 from political leaders, scien-
tists, environmentalists, and the general public in
the United States and the other industrially ad-
vanced countries. Adequate supplies of fuels are
essential to these complex, highly developed soci-
eties because energy is involved in the full range of
problems confronting them. These include national
economic growth, depletion of resources, security
of supply, environmental protection and ecological
degradation, conservation and recycling of mate-
rials, and changes in living standards and life
styles.

Prime evidence of this growing concern was the
unprecedented energy message of June 4, 1971, by
U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon in which he established
national energy goals and outlined a broad range
of policies to deal with the nation's growing energy
demands and overcome the supply and environ-

mental problems. Nixon stated, "A sufficient sup-
ply of clean energy is essential if we are to sustain
healthy economic growth and improve the quality
of our national life.” He noted that existing domes-
tic energy sources and technologies are not suffi-
cient to meet future requirements within acceptable
environmental standards and costs. Therefore,
Nixon committed the U.S. to a “clean energy”
policy and ordered accelerated programs of re-
search and development of three priority tech-
nologies — sulfur oxide emissions control, the
fast breeder nuclear power reactor, and coal gasifi-
cation. He also noted the need for greater research
and development efforts in nuclear fusion, solar
energy, underground electric power transmission,
magnetohydrodynamics, and other technologies.

Drilling rig in west Texas was used to conduct tests of
a new technique, abrasive jet drilling. The tests
demonstrated drilling rates 4 to 20 times faster with
substantially longer bit life when compared with
conventional rotary drilling.

Coulfjy. Gi.'! or Cc-po'o- oi

244

Secretary of the Interior Rogers C. B. Morton an-
nounced on July 15. 1971, the essential elements of
a proposed national energy policy that was consis-
tent v/ith and supportive of the president's mes-
sage. These policy elements set forth the ob-
jectives. responsibilities, and roles of private
enterprise and of local, state, and federal govern-
ments in bringing about a more acceptable
balance among national energy objectives.

Despite the slov/down of general economic
activity during 1971. fuel and power consumption
registered healthy gams. In the U.S.. energy con-
sumption increased by 2.3% over that of 1970. At
the same time, energy demand m all the non-
Communist nations was estimated to have in-
creased by more than 5%. Most of the increased
consumption occurred m the U.S., Western Eu-
rope, Japan, and the other more industrialized and
affluent countries.

The less developed countries continued as the
principal sources of fuel supplies. Western Europe
remained dependent on the oil-rich countries of
the Middle East and Africa for nearly two-thirds of
its total fuel needs, v/hile Japan obtained about 70%
of its fuels from those sources; the U.S. received
about 25‘!o of its petroleum requirements from
foreign countries, but mostly from Western Hemis-
phere sources.

As a result of the continuing growth in the de-
mand for fuels in the major consuming nations, the
oil-producing and exporting countries were suc-
cessful in further modifying the terms of conces-
sion agreements held by Vifestern oil companies
operating in their territories. The exporting coun-
tries greatly increased their share of revenues and
imposed more stringent controls on the conces-
sionaires. During 1971, oil payments to govern-
ments of the oil-producing states in the Persian
Gulf and African areas increased by approximately
30 to 40';i> in accordance with the five-year settle-
ments of early 1971 negotiated in Teheran and
Tripoli between oil operators and the Organization
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). De-
spite this increase the oil-producing countries
pressed new demands for increased revenues and
for local government participation in the ownership
of the oil companies operating in their territories.
These actions seem likely to lead to a greater con-
trol of oil exports by the producing countries and
further sharp increases in oil prices in the major
consuming nations.

One of the most significant steps in nuclear
power development in recent years was the an-
nouncement on Jan. 14, 1972. by U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission (AEC) chairman James R.
Schicsinger that the nation's first lame-sca’c
nuclear fast breeder electric power plant would be

fiovoi'i ffC'TS

Fuel and power

constructed in Tennessee. Since the beginning of
the nuclear age, scientists have recognized the
need for fast breeder reactors. Such a plant will
produce more fissionable fuel than it consumes,
in contrast to presently developed nuclear plants
that consume approximately twice as much fuel as
they produce. President Nixon stated in his energy
message that “Our best hope today for meeting
the Nation’s growing demand for economical clean
energy lies with the fast breeder reactor." Not un-
til 1972 had the breeder program progressed
enough to warrant a large-scale demonstration
plant.

During 1971, environmental concerns remained
a major issue in the U.S. and other highly indus-
trialized countries. New environmental protection
regulations and measures taken to control pollu-
tion increasingly influenced the fuel and power
industries, placing constraints on traditional
methods of producing, processing, transporting,
and using fuels and power.

Scientists in 1972 generally recognized that no
fuels or forms of energy were entirely "clean”
within existing technologies and that "zero pollu-
tion" was not a realistic expectation. The pro-
duction and use of energy involved many activities
that inherently affected the environment adversely,
and current technologies were simply not capable
of providing the ultimate environmental protection
desired. Nevertheless, acceptable pollution limits
could be attained through improvements in the
production and consumption of fuels. Such im-
provements would result in an increase in the cost
of power to the consumer. Thus, the consumer's
need for reliable supplies of adequate and rea-
sonably priced energy had to be balanced with
attainable and affordable environmental quality
objectives.

As a result of a federal appeals court decision
in the Calvert Cliffs (Md.) nuclear power plant
case, a decision critical of the plant's environ-
mental protection policies, the AEC issued drasti-
cally revised rules for assessing the total environ-
mental impact of nuclear power stations. The AEC
assumed full responsibility for evaluating all en-
vironmental effects from the nuclear plants and all
alternatives for producing electric power prior to
issuance of construction permits and operating
licenses.

Prior to this decision, the AEC had placed most
consideration on radiological effects and had relied
on other state and federal agencies for advice on
other environmental matters. The new regulations
were expected to delay licensing of nuclear plants
under construction by as much as one to two
years.

Other significant developments affecting fuel
246

and power in the year under review included:
(1) world petroleum consumption reached record
highs, but a general slowdown in economic ex-
pansion limited the gain to about half that of recent
years: (2) new large oil discoveries in the North
Sea confirmed that area as a major oil province;
(3) the discovery of natural gas off Nova Scotia was
the first commercial hydrocarbon discovery along
the east coast of the North American continental
shelf: (4) U.S. crude oil production in 1 971 declined
for the first time since 1961 : (5) international ship-
ments of liquefied natural gas (LNG) expanded
rapidly as the U.S. and other highly industrialized
countries sought new gas sources; (6) despite a
slowdown in gas demand in 1971, the natural gas
supply situation in the U.S. continued to worsen;
(7) U.S. coal production in 1971 declined by 7%
as a result of a six-week labor strike; (8) the number
of fatalities and their frequency rate in U.S. bitumi-
nous coal mines were at an all-time low in 1971;
(9) world electricity demand continued to pace
energy demand at an extraordinary rate; and (10)
there was a continued strong upsurge throughout
the world in new orders for nuclear electric power
generation units.

Engineers weld sections of the Yakutsk-Pavrovsk gas
pipeline in the Soviet Union, the northernmost pipeline
of its kind in the world. A 148-km (92 mi) sector of the
snakelike structure rests on special pile supports
aboveground.

Tail from Sovfolo

Fuel and power

Petroleum and natural gas

Throughout 1971 and early 1972, the world petro-
leum and natural gas industry v/as confronted with
lov/er growth rates, new economic and political
initiatives by the large oil-exportmg countries,
grov/ing environmental constraints, and greater
challenges to develop resources in difficult operat-
ing regions so as to diversify supply sources. In the
U.S.. domestic oil production declined, petroleum
product and natural gas demand grov/th rates
slowed sharply, oil and gas prices increased, and
environmental constraints increasingly deterred
and restricted petroleum exploration and develop-
ment activities.

Worldwide oil production averaged almost 48
million bbl daily in 1971, only about 5.4% more than
that of 1970 and considerably less than the average
growth rate over the past decade of nearly 8%.
Crude oil production in the U.S. fell in 1971 by
about 1% to a little more than 9.5 million bbl per
day. Even so, the U.S. continued as the world
leader in crude oil production, although its share
of the world total steadily declined from 32°/o in
1961 to 20% in 1971. The Soviet Union followed
as the second largest producer, accounting for
about 16% of world supply. Iran and Saudi Arabia
ranked third and fourth, respectively.

U.S. consumption of petroleum products aver-
aged just under 15 million bbl daily, an increase of
only 2.4% over that of 1970. Consumption in the
rest of the world of about 33 million bbl daily was
only 5.3°/i higher than the previous year. These
gains were oniy about half the annual growth rates
of recent years. The lower rates of gain in 1971
were attributed to a general slowdown in world
economic expansion and to milder weather in the
major consuming areas throughout 1971.

In concerted and individual actions the major
oil-exporting nations of the world exerted eco-
nomic and political pressures to obtain greater
benefits and control over oil concessionaires oper-
ating in their territories. Most negotiations were
conducted under the auspices of the Organization
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), an
11 -nation group comprising 6 Persian Gulf area
states plus Indonesia. Nigeria, Algeria. Libya, and
Venezuela. OPEC controls approximately 90% of
the world’s oil reserves and exports. .

The international oil and gas industry continued
exploration efforts throughout the v.'orld and suc-
ceeded in finding or extending nevr reserves. The
discovery' of three potentially large oil fields in
the British sector of the North Sea confirmed this
area as a major oil province. The first production
from largo oil fields in the Nor%'.eQinn sector of the
North Sea was initiated in August 1971. Estim.ntcs

by industry sources indicated that in 1972 known
oil reserves were sufficient to support production
of one million barrels daily from the North Sea.
The major impediment to development v/as the
lack of adequate drilling equipment to operate
in the turbulent sea and drill in water depths up
to 400 ft.

Other notable exploration successes svere regis-
tered in offshore Indonesia, where oil production
began in 1971. Large new gas reserves were dis-
covered in the Canadian Arctic. The first commer-
cial discovery off the east coast of North America
v/as the announced natural gas find on Sable
Island off Nova Scotia. An oil find in the Mediter-
ranean near Spain, a large new oil discovery in
Egypt, another giant oil field found in Saudi Arabia,
and more new discoveries in Ecuador v;ero among
the more significant events of 1971.

The U.S. petroleum industry waged a losing
battle in its efforts to expand domestic producing
capacity to meet rising demands. Although domes-
tic production neared capacity, 1971 crude oil
production actually declined below that of 1970 by
90,000 bbl per day to an average of 9,545,000 bbl
daily. Environmental considerations continued
significantly to forestall development of oil and gas
resources in the most oil-rich regions of the U.S.—
Alaska and the outer continental shelf.

Construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline re-
mained at a standstill as efforts to resolve environ-
mental objections continued. The U.S. Congress
passed a bill settling Alaskan native claims, thereby
resolving one major problem. As a prerequisite for
obtaining a permit for construction of the pipeline,
the U.S. Department of the Interior prepared and
filed an environmental impact statement for a fed-
eral court, in compliance with the National Environ-
mental Policy Act of 1970. Environmental groups
were expected to appeal any decisions that would
allow issuance of the permit.

A general lease sale of federal outer continental
shelf lands offshore of Louisiana, scheduled for
Dec. 21. 1971, was cancelled because of court in-
junctions against the sale obtained through the
efforts of three environmental groups. They argued
successfully that the required environmental state-
ment was inadequate in its consideration of alter-
nate energy sources.

As a result of these conditions, the U-S. was ex-
pected to increase its reliance on fore.gn oil
imports. In 1972 these already provided 25% ol
the required supply.

Marketed production of natural gas throughout
the world amounted to an estimated -tO trillion cu ft
in 1971. U.S. production accounted for 57'; of this
total. Based on gross withdrawals, the world .mar-
keted production of natura' gr;,s a'no'jnted to about

2-:7

Stainless-steel tank in the hold of the tanker “Descartes"
is one of six in ship, which can transport 1 ,1 00,000,000
cu ft of liquid natural gas at —259’ F. Experts predicted
that by 1976 such tankers would be bringing natural
gas to the U.S. from such remote areas as Siberia.

70% of producing capacity. The major supply
centers were remote from large consuming coun-
tries, and inadequate transportation facilities pre-
ciuded the full utilization of this clean fuel. Few
industrial nations had adequate indigenous gas
supplies and thus were net importers of natural
gas. Pipelines transported most of the gas sold
across national boundaries, but LNG continued to
grow rapidly as a means of processing and trans-
porting gas in international trade. During 1971,
LNG plants were operating in Algeria, Libya, and
Alaska, and ten special tankers regularly delivered
LNG to European, Japanese, and U.S. markets.
The international shipments of LNG in 1971
amounted to 250,000,000,000 cu ft.

In 1971, the U.S. demand for dry natural gas was
about 22.1 trillion cu ft, accounting for one-third
of the nation’s total gross energy consumption.
The 1971 demand was only 3.4% more than that of
1970 and was considerably less than the average
annual growth rate of 5.8% during the period from
1961 to 1971. Milder weather, a slowdown in the

general economy, and limited availability of new
gas supplies for some markets were responsible for
the sharp decline.

Despite the slowdown in gas demand in 1971,
the domestic natural gas supply situation in the
U.S. continued to worsen. Consumption continued
to exceed the replacement of new gas reserves.
Paradoxically, it was reliably estimated that there
were large natural gas resources remaining to be
discovered and developed in the U.S. According
to producers and developers of gas resources,
they would remain undiscovered because regu-
lated wellhead prices of gas were inadequate to
attract the risk capital necessary for increased
natural gas exploration and producing ventures.
In an attempt to alleviate this situation the U.S.
Federal Power Commission (FPC), the regulator
of prices in interstate gas markets, changed its
area wellhead pricing rules and took other steps
that increased average domestic wellhead prices
by 8.4% in 1970 and 6.6% in 1971. But even with
the FPC action many producing, gas transmission,
and distribution companies maintained that greater
price increases were needed.

Expanded domestic natural gas development
appeared to be essential to fulfill the expected
rising demands of the mid- and late 1970s. If
economic incentives prove inadequate, more gas
shortages are expected to occur. Alternate sources
of supply, such as overland imports from Canada,
LNG, and synthetic gas from coal or oil, were not
considered adequate supplements to meet fuel
demands for gas in the near future.

Nevertheless, the use of synthetic gas as a high-
cost supplementary gas supply was growing. Plans
were announced for the proposed construction
of approximately 20 plants for the conversion of
coal, naphtha, and other hydrocarbons to gaseous
fuels. The chief detriments to synthetic gas devel-
opment were that conversion technologies were
not perfected and the cost of such gas was very
high.

Coal

Coal continued to be a major energy source in
1971, with worldwide production and demand esti-
mated to be slightly in excess of 3,000,000,000
tons. Production was centered in eight countries
that accounted for more than 80% of the total
output. These included the Soviet Union, the U.S.,
China, East and West Germany, Poland, the United
Kingdom, and Czechoslovakia. The U.S. con-
tinued to account for about one-fifth of the total
output.

Production of bituminous coal and lignite in the
U.S. reached only 560 million tons in 1 971 , 7% less

248

Fuel and power

than that of 1970. The decline was the result of a
six-v/eek strike that shut dov/n most of the U.S.
coal industry in the fall. Despite the strike, domes-
tic coal consumption of about 504 million tons was
off by only 2.5% from 1970. Coal’s most important
market, electric power generation, actually in-
creased consumption by about 3.3°o to 331 million
tons. U.S. coal exports were affected by the strike
and by a general slackening of v/orld economic
activity. Coal and coke exports declined to an esti-
mated 59 million tons, valued at about S950 million.

Coal in 1972 was the most abundant fossil fuel
resource in the U.S., with reserves adequate for
centuries at current levels of consumption; how-
ever, its combustion was the major source of air
pollution from stationary sources. It was essential
that new or improved technologies be developed
for removal of sulfur dioxide and other pollutants
either prior to or after combustion so that coal could
make its proper and necessary contribution to
future energy needs. Technologies for the removal
of sulfur and other harmful contaminants from
stack gases, and conversion processes for produc-
ing clean synthetic gases or liquids from coal
were known but had to be made more efficient
and less costly. In his energy message. President
Nixon recognized this urgent need and announced
high-priority programs and increased funding for
research to speed up the time v/hen those tech-
nologies become a commercial reality.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines greatly expanded its

coal mine inspection and enforcement activities,
and the coal industry made considerable progress
in complying with the Coal Mine Health and Safety
Act of 1969. The number of fatalities and their
frequency rate in bituminous coal mines reached
an all-time low m 1971. Although there were 177
fatal injuries, this v/as 78 less than in 1970. The
frequency rate of fatal injuries in 1971 was 0.76
per million manhours, a drop of 27‘lo from that of
1970. In addition, lour miners lost their lives in
anthracite coal and mine accidents in 1971.

Electric power

World demand for electrical energy continued to
grow at an extraordinary rate, nearly double that of
energy as a whole. It was estimated that world
electricity consumption reached 5 trillion kw-hr
m 1971. The U.S. led all nations in power consump-
tion. accounting for more than one-third of the
total. In 1971, net electricity generation by the
U.S. electric utility industry was an estimated
1,610,000,000,000 kw-hr, a gam of 5.4';'i) over the
1970 output.

Electricity is a secondary form of energy that re-
quires the conversion of a primary source into
power by a generation process. In 1972, about 82%
of the electricity in the U.S. was generated in fossil-
fueled thermal plants; le"!!. was from falling water
in hydroelectric plants: and only about 2Vo was from
nuclear power plants. Insignificant quantities wore

Oil drilling rig stands in the North Sea. where potentially large oil Helds were recently discovered In 1971
production began Irom wells in the Norwegian sector of the sea in spite of dilticulties presented by
considerable turbulence and by water depths of -fOO It

Courtesy. Stondord O t Co <N J '

Fuel and power

generated from geothermal steam, wind, solar, and
tidal energy sources. The thermal conversion (of
heat energy into electric power) was costly in terms
of primary fuels because it was accompanied by a
great loss of heat energy. The thermal efficiency
of the best power plants in 1972 was only about
40%.

The types of nuclear power plants in use or under
construction utilized only 1 to 2% of the thermal
energy released from the nuclear fuel. This figure
was not expected to improve materially until the
so-called fast breeder reactors became a reality.
Fast breeder reactors are technically feasible con-
cepts. When perfected for commercial use, each
reactor will be capable of producing enough ex-
cess fissionable fuel in a period of 7 to 10 years to
sustain itself and also fuel another reactor of sim-
ilar size. In his energy message, Nixon increased
the funding for the AEG program to demonstrate
the commercial feasibility of a fast breeder reactor
by 1980. To achieve this goal, AEG chairman James
R. Schlesinger announced on Jan. 14, 1972, a
joint industry-government plan to build the na-
tion's first fast breeder prototype power plant.

The breeder demonstration plant was to be built
at a site to be selected in Tennessee and would be
operated by the publicly owned Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA). The AEG and Gommonwealth
Edison Go. of Ghicago were to manage the project.
The U.S. government was to provide $200 million
of the anticipated total cost of about $500 million
for the plant, the rest to be paid by the major U.S.
electric utility companies, which by mid-1972 had
pledged $240 million for the project. Gonstruction
was expected to begin in early 1973.

Despite the small contribution of nuclear power
plants to electricity output to date, the expected
growth in nuclear generation was the most impor-
tant change anticipated in the history of thermal
power generation. Assuming that expectations are
realized in the construction of reactors of the light
water and high-temperature gas types and in the
development of fast breeders, nuclear power will
become the predominant method of electricity
generation before the end of the century. A long-
range project that could lead to the production of
vast amounts of electric power is the effort to
achieve controlled nuclear fusion. (See Feature
Article: NUGLEAR FUSION, POWER SOURGE OF
THE FUTURE?)

At the end of 1971, there were 23 nuclear units
having a total generating capacity of 10,000 Mw
in commercial operation in the U.S. An additional
54 units were being built, and orders had been
placed for 52 more units. All of these units added
up to a total generating capacity of 107,000 Mw,
or about one-third of the present U.S. generating
capacity. The total nuclear capacity and planned
construction in all countries outside the U.S. was
approximately equivalent to that of the U.S.

Outlook

The outlook for fuels and power in 1973 is that it
will continue to be of major concern and command
high-priority attention from the leaders of the
world’s industrial nations. The matters of greatest
interest will involve the reliability and security of
fuel supplies, especially those involving petroleum
sources; the resolution of environmental and eco-

Courtesy, BotteUe-Nonhwest Phofogrophy

Mock-up shows the Fast Flux
Test Facility, an experimental
liquid-metal last-breeder reactor
being built in Richland, Wash.
Present projections indicate an
exhaustion of fossil fuel reserves
within several generations;
thus, alternate energy sources
must be developed- The
fast-breeder reactor, when
perfected, will be able to provide
an essentially inexhaustible,
economic supply of energy.

Honors

logical conflicts arising from fuels and power
production and usage; and the technological
achievements or progress that may ensue from the
greatly expanded research and development ef-
forts that have been announced or initiated.

Among the most probable specific developments
that can be expected to occur m 1973 are the fol-
lowing; (1) total world energy demand growth rates
will rebound in response to improved general
economic conditions in the major industrialized
countries: (2) U.S. domestic petroleum and natural
gas production rates will increase to new highs as
demands resume higher growth rates; (3) govern-
mental actions to conform to more strict environ-
mental constraints on fuels and power generation
will be implemented, especially in relation to air
pollution standards, leasing of federal lands lor
mineral fuel development, and nuclear plant oper-
ations: (4) the environmental review prescribed
by the new AEG regulations svill delay by one to
two years the start of operations of nuclear power
plants under construction in the U.S.; (5) the U.S.
svill begin construction of its first fast breeder
nuclear demonstration plant, its most important
recent step in the development of nuclear reactor
technology: and (6) the first substantial results
of expanded research to develop coal conversion
technologies should be reported.

—James A. West

Honors

The following major scientific honors wore awarded
during the period from July 1, 1971. through June
30. 1972.

Aeronautics and astronautics

Robert J. Collier Trophy. Established in 1912 by
the Aero Club of America and presented annually
by the National Aeronautic Association, the Collier
Award is given in recognition of great achievement
in aeronautics or astronautics in America, The 1971
trophy was awarded to the three Apollo 15 astro-
nauts, David R. Scott and James B, Irwin of the
team that explored the moon’s surface, and Alfred
M. Worden, pilot of the command module. A fourth
co-recipient was Robert R. Gilruth. director of the
Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston. Tex.

Langley Mcdat. In 1903 the Smithsonian Institu-
tion established the Langley Medal in memory of
Samuel Pierpont Langley, an early pioneer in the
physics of flight and secretary of the Smithsonian
from 1637 until 1906. for the purpose of honoring a
scientist who had conducted esoccially meritorious
investigations in connection with the sciences o-

aeronautics and astronautics. Previously awarded
only 1 1 limes, the honor in 1971 wont to Samuel C.
Phillips of the United States Air Force, who was
chosen for his outstanding contributions as direc-
tor of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration's (NASA's) Apollo manned spacecraft pro-
gram from 1964 through 1969.

Astronomy

Helen B. Warner Prize. The American Astro-
nomical Society each year presents the Helen B.
Warner Prize in recognition of a significant con-
tribution to astronomy made during the preceding
five years by an astronomer under the age of 35,
The 1971 award v/as presented to Kenneth Kellor-
mann, a radio astronomer at the National Radio
Astronomy Observatory. Charlottesville. Va. Kellcr-
mann was honored for his interpretation of the
evolution of radio sources, and for his work on
high-resolution radio interferometry and on radio
emission from planets and stars.

Henryk Arctowski Medal. An award lor studies
of solar activity, the Henryk Arctowski Modal is
bestowed approximately every three years by the
National Academy of Sciences and consists of a
gold medal and honorarium of S5,000. The 1972
recipient of the award was Francis S. Johnson,
director of the Southwest Center lor Advanced
Studies at the University of Texas at Dallas. John-
son was cited for his pioneering svork in the physics
of high atmosphere and space. Especially noted
was his description of how atmospheric transport
processes regulate their response to changes in
solar activity as well as to changes in season.

James Craig Watson Medal. The National Acad-
emy of Sciences presents approximately every three
years the James Craig Watson award, consisting of
a gold medal and a 52,000 honorarium lor achieve-
ments in astronomical research. The 1972 medal
was presented to Andre Deprit. a National Research
Council postdoctoral resident research associate
at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Green-
belt. Md., for his adaptation of modern computing
machinery to algebraic rather than arithmetical
operations. His work solved in general terms a
problem of lunar theory that concerns the motion
of the moon around the earth as affected by the
gravitational force of the sun.

Kepler Gold Medal. Co-sponsored by the geol-
ogy and geogrnohy section of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Sc'cnce and the
Melcoritical Society, the Kep'er Gold f.'od.a! av.arps
for 1971 wore presented in honor o' the 4GO;h
anniversary of the b-rth of Joh.annes .Kep’r---, the
Corrr^n matho.matician a.nd ast'cnome.'. Six rci-
entists fccoi-.ed the gc’d med.a' a-,d cc-ti'icate fo-

Honors

their outstanding contributions to the understand-
ing of the origin of the soiar system and the planets:
(1) Hannes Alfven (see Franklin Medal, below),
visiting professor at the University of California,
San Diego, who was cited for past work in the de-
velopment of magnetohydrodynamics, and recent
studies of the role plasmas played in the evolution
of the planets. (2) Gerard Kuiper, professor of
astronomy and director of the Lunar and Planetary
Laboratory at the University of Arizona, who was
honored as one of the few 20th-century scientists
credited with creating the new discipline of plane-
tary science. Kuiper discovered the atmosphere on
Titan, a satellite of Saturn (1944); measured the
CO 2 atmosphere of Mars; and conducted research
on the meteorology of Jupiter. (3) Harold Urey, a
professor at the University of California, San Diego,
who was cited in particular for his work on the
generai formulation of the problem of the origin of
the planets.

Also receiving the award were: (4) Fred Whipple,
director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-
tory, for his leadership of the observatory and of
the High Altitude Rocket Research Panel in 1946,
and for his research into the role of meteors and
comets in the evolution of the solar system; (5) E. J.
Opik, of the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ire-
land, in recognition of his study of the interaction
of meteorites and the atmosphere, hypersonic
collisions in the solar system, the role of dust
grains in planetary and interstellar space, the appli-
cations of terrestrial physics to the elucidation of
the nature of the surfaces and atmospheres of the
planets, and the way in which changes in the sun's
atmosphere can influence the climate; (6) Boris
Levin of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, for his
work as an astronomer, solar-system astrophysicist,
and cosmochemist, with the ability to reach beyond
the boundaries of the discipline in which he was
trained to achieve an understanding of the origin
of the planets. Levin's major research covered
meteors and the preatmospheric nature of inter-
planetary particles, comets, and asteroids; the
physical and orbital properties of meteorites; and
the structure, thermal history, and surface evolu-
tion of the moon.

Biology

Institute of Life Prize. Made possible by a dona-
tion from the French electricity system, the Insti-
tute of Life Prize consists of a $50,000 monetary
award which is to be given to a scientist for out-
standing contributions to the life sciences. The
first prize, presented in 1972, was received by
Rene Dubos, retired microbiologist of Rockefeller
University in New York City, who was cited for his

work concerning environmental problems. Dubos
was quoted as having pledged to use the prize
money for furthering his commitment to finding out
"what human environment really means."

Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize. Established in 1967
by the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New
York, the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize is adminis-
tered by Columbia University and is awarded an-
nually to recognize outstanding basic research in
biology or biochemistry. The 1971 prize of $25,000
was awarded to Hugh E. Huxley, a fellow of Churchill
College, Cambridge University, who was cited for
his studies that revealed the chemical mechanism
of muscle contraction. Huxley’s "sliding filament
hypothesis" proposed that thick and thin filaments,
sliding past one another, could form bridges that
provide the basis for the weight-bearing capacity
of contracting muscles.

U.S. Steel Foundation Award in Molecular Biol-
ogy. Administered by the National Academy of
Sciences, the U.S. Steel Foundation Award may be
given annually for a recent discovery in molecular
biology by a young scientist. The 1972 award with
its honorarium of $5,000 was presented to Howard
M. Temin, Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation
Professor of Cancer Research at the University of
Wisconsin McArdle Laboratory, for Cancer Re-
search in Madison, Wis. Temin was cited for his
work in the experimental demonstration that
showed some cancer viruses transfer genetic in-
formation by a reverse process. This demonstration
contradicted the older theory that the transference
is only a one-way process, and could lead to a
greater understanding of the mechanisms that
cause cancer.

Chemistry

ACS Award in Pure Chemistry. Sponsored by
Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity, the $2,000 American
Chemical Society’s Award in Pure Chemistry is
given to recognize and encourage fundamental
research in pure chemistry carried out by a U.S. or
Canadian citizen. The 1972 award was received by
Roy Gerald Gordon, professor of chemistry at
Harvard University, who was cited for his many
contributions to the field of theoretical chemistry.
Gordon has advanced numerous new approaches
in quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, scat-
tering theory, and spectroscopy in order to secure
new information concerning the shapes and
strengths of intermolecular forces.

Beilby Medal. Representing the Royal Institute
of Chemistry, the Society of Chemical Industry, and
the Institute of Medals, the Sir George Beilby
Memorial Fund administrators made an award of
the medal and £100 prize from the fund in 1971.

252

Honors

Courifi/, Horvord Uni^rrl'V nr //i O^'Ce

George Kistiakowsky

That year's recipient was John Howard Purnell,
dean of the Faculty of Science at the University
College of Swansea. Wales, for his research in
physical chemistry, pertaining particularly to his
studies of hydrocarbon pyrolysis, and to the appli-
cation and development of gas chromatography.
Purnell and his associates extended certain find-
ings of their prior academic studies of alkane sys-
tems to problems connected with industrial hydro-
carbon cracking processes and olefin production.
Purnell pioneered in the application of the gas
chromatographic method to the measuring o
physical properties of molecules, and in the stu y
of solution and liquid surface thermodynarnics.

Garvan Medaf. The American Chemical Society
presents each year the Garvan Medal, an award
established in 1936 and consisting of a gold meda
and a S2.000 honorarium, to a U.S. woman chern^
selected for her distinguished service to chemistry.
The 1972 winner of the award was Jean n w -
Shreeve, professor of chemistry'
of Idaho, for her contributions to the fu >

understanding of the behavior o . .

rine compounds, and to the synthesis
new fluorochemicals. Among Shreeve s cade
research accomplishments were
the compound perfluorourea. an oxi -

ent. and new methods of sever.

portant compounds including c or '
and difluorodiazine. both used to syni

oxidizers. Kov->l

Nobel Prize for Chemistry. The S'-'ed^sh

Academy of Sciences chose ' ^ f.Zv-n!

Ottawa. Ont.. as the recipient of the 19"

Prize for Chemistry. Herzberg, a retired scientist
at the National Research Council of Canada, was
cited for his contributions to the knowledge of
electronic structure and geometry of molecules,
particularly fragments of molecules, known as free
radicals. The physicist's laboratory was also cited
as the foremost molecular spectroscopy center in
the world. Herzberg's synthesizing of numerous
techniques and theories, which led to the uncover-
ing of structures and characteristics of diatomic
and polytomic molecules and of classic free radi-
cals (methyl [CHa] and methylene (CHa)). con-
tributed greatly to the development of chemistry.

Priestley Medal. The American Chemical Soci-
ety's Priestley Medal, established in 1922 and con-
sidered the highest honor in American chemistry,
IS bestowed in recognition of distinguished serv-
ices to chemistry. The 1972 recipient was George
Kistiakowsky. associated with Harvard University
for more than 40 years. An authority on explosives,
shock waves, thermodynamics, and rates of chemi-
cal reactions, he was cited for his more than three
decades of service to the U.S. government. Kistia-
kowsky was head of the explosives divisirvn of the
National Defense Research Committee (1940).
chief of the explosives division of the Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory (1944), and a member of the
Science Advisory Board of the Air Force until 1957.
From 1959 through 1961 he v/as science adviser to
U.S. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower and then served
(1962-68) as first chairman of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences Committee on Science and Public
Policy. From 1965-69 he was vice-president of the
Academy.

Honors

Gerhard Herzberg

S. Yoder, Jr., a petrologist and first director of the
Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington, D.C., who was cited for developing
an apparatus that enabled scientists to investigate
a wide range of phenomena within the earth’s
crust. Yoder's investigations dealt with the proper-
ties of minerals and rocks, synthetic and natural,
at high pressures and temperatures.

Charles P. Daly Medal. The American Geograph-
ical Society of New York intermittently presents the
Charles P. Daly Medal for valuable or distinguished
geographic services or labors. In 1971 the award
was made to Gilbert Fowler White, professor of
geography and director of the Institute of Behav-
ioral Science at the University of Colorado. Re-
search, administration, and public service all
figured in White’s career.

In research three fields were of interest to him:
arid lands, water resource allocation, and natural
hazards. White’s public service covered member-
ship on the National Resources Planning Board
and work in the United States Bureau of the
Budget. He was president of Haverford College,
in Pennsylvania for ten years (1946-55) and served
as chairman of the American Friends Service
Committee from 1963 until 1969.

Cottrell Award. Established by the Research-
Cottrell Inc., the S5,000 Cottrell Award is to be
given annually for outstanding scientific or techni-
cal achievement in improving the environment or
controlling pollution. First awarded in 1972, it was
presented to Arie J. Haagen-Smit, emeritus pro-

254

Bari IV. Sutherland, Jr.

fessor of bio-organic chemistry of the California
Institute of Technology, who was cited for his
highly innovative studies on the formation of smog,
and for his untiring efforts to shape the air pollution
control policies of the nation. Haagen-Smit began
his studies in the 1940s (long before pollution be-
came a household word) when he undertook the
examination of the chemical composition of the
polluted atmosphere and its effects on plant life in
the Los Angeles basin.

International Meteorological Organization Prize.
The World Meteorological Organization’s 16th
prize was awarded in 1971 to Jule G. Charney, pro-
fessor of meteorology at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Charney was cited for his "outstand-
ing contribution to dynamical meteorology, his
furtherance of research especially in numerical
methods of weather prediction, and his services to
the cause of international cooperation in the sci-
ence of the atmosphere.’’

Massey Medal. The Royal Canadian Geograph-
ical Society annually presents the Massey Medal,
established in 1959, for recognition of outstanding
personal achievement in the exploration, develop-
ment, or description of the geography of Canada.
The 1972 silver medal was presented to Isobel
Moira Dunbar, geographer with the Canadian
Defense Research Board, for her work on Arctic
ice studies. Dunbar contributed important new
knowledge on ice distribution and the interpreta-
tion of ice in photographs, including both satellite
and infrared photography.

Honors

Medical sciences

Albert Lasker Medical Research Av/ards. The
Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation each year pre-
sents a number of prizes for medical research. The
1971 Albert Lasker Clinical Research Award with
its $10,000 honorarium v/as given to Edward D.
Freis, senior medical investigator at the Veterans
Administration Hospital in Washington. D.C. Fries
was honored for a five-year study demonstrating
that moderately high blood pressure, though pro-
ducing no symptoms, could be still dangerous and
that proper treatment could reduce greatly the
high risk of stroke and heart failure.

Three recipients of the Albert Lasker Basic
Medical Research Award shared the $10,000 prize;
Seymour Benzer of California Institute of Tech-
nology. Sydney Brenner of the University of Cam-
bridge in England, and Charles Yanofsky of Stan-
ford (Calif.) University. The three geneticists
pioneered in demonstrating that inherited charac-
teristics in all living things are coded molecule by
molecule along strands of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and that messages are "read" to produce
specific protein molecules.

NAMH Research Achievement Award, Estab-
lished by the National Association of Mental Health,
the Research Achievement Award was to be pre-
sented annually at the beginning of May, National
Mental Health Month. Chosen in 1972 for the first
$10,000 award was Seymour Kety, a psychiatrist at
Harvard University. Kety was cited for his contribu-
tions to the development of pharmaceutical ap-

proaches to the control of various types of mental
illnesses, especially schizophrenia.

Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. The
Swedish Royal Caroline Medico-Chirurgical Insti-
tute awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize for Physiology
or Medicine, amounting to $90,000. to Earl W.
Sutherland. Jr., professor of physiology at Vander-
bilt University, Nashville. Tenn. He was honored for
his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the
action of hormones, chemical substances secreted
by the glands and which influence the activities of
various ceils, tissues, and organs.

Sutherland's research led to the discovery of
cyclic adenosine monophosphate, or cyclic AMP.
This intermediary chemical substance proved to
play an important role m the mechanisms by which
hormones exert theirconirolover various metabolic
activities throughout the human body. A later dis-
covery by Sutherland shov/ed that the substances
also occurred in bacteria, which opened the door
on a v/hole new biological perspective.

Procter Medal. The Philadelphia Drug Exchange
sponsors the Procter Medal, which is given in
recognition of outstanding achievement that has
benefited the health of the public and advanced
the progress of the health professions in the phar-
maceutical industry. The 1 972 medal v/as bestowed
upon Maurice R. Hilleman, director of virus
and cell research for the Merck Institute lor Thera-
peutic Research. Hilleman was honored for his
contributions in the fields of etiological discovery,
classification, laboratory diagnostics, epidemiol-
ogy. public health, and clinical evaluation.

Dennis Gabor

Honors

Edwin H. Land

Jay Scorpetti, courtesy, Polaroid Corporotion

Physics

Albert Einstein Award. Administered by the
Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund, the Albert
Einstein Award is presented approximately every
two years for achievement in the mathematical
and physical sciences. The 1972 award of a gold
medal and $5,000 honorarium was given to Eugene
Paul Wigner of Princeton University for his out-
standing contribution to the physical sciences.

Wigner, a co-winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize for
Physics, was awarded also in 1972 the George
Gamow Memorial Lectureship Award presented by
the University of Colorado, in recognition for his
contributions to the development of physics and
to the elucidation of its fundamental concepts.

Enrico Fermi Award. The U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission presents annually the $25,000 Enrico
Fermi Award in recognition of outstanding scien-
tific or technical achievement related to the devel-
opment, use, or control of nuclear energy, and to
stimulate creative work in the development and
application of nuclear science. The 1972 award
was made to two of the world’s leading medical
experts on radiation; Stafford L. Warren, emeritus
vice-chancellor of health sciences at the University
of California at Los Angeles, and Shields Warren,
emeritus professor of pathology at Harvard Medical
School. The Warrens (unrelated) were cited for
having helped make possible the early development
of atomic energy so as to assure the protection of
man and the environment.

Franklin Medal. The Franklin Institute of Phila-
delphia presents its highest award, the Franklin
Medal, annually for recognition of those workers
in physical science or technology whose efforts

256

have done most to advance a knowledge of physi-
cal science or its application. The 1971 award was
presented to Hannes Alfven of the department of
applied physics and information at the University of
California, San Diego. Alfven was cited for his
pioneer work in establishing the field of magneto-
hydrodynamics and his many revolutionary con-
tributions in that field to plasma physics, space
physics, and astrophysics.

Ernest O. Lawrence Memorial Award. The U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission in 1959 established
the annual Ernest O. Lawrence Memorial Award to
recognize five young scientists who have made
recent, especially meritorious contributions to the
development, use, or control of nuclear energy in
areas of all the sciences relating to nuclear energy,
including medicine and engineering. The 1972
awards, consisting of a gold medal and $5,000,
were made to; (1) Charles C. Cremer, group leader
of the theoretical design division of the Los Alamos
(N.M.) Scientific Laboratory: (2) Sidney D. Drell,
deputy director and executive head of theoretical
physics at the Stanford (Calif.) University Linear
Accelerator Center; (3) Paul F. Zweifel, professor
of physics and nuclear engineering at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute; (4) Marvin Goldman, radio-
biologist at the University of California at Davis: and
(5) David A. Shirley, chairman of the chemistry
department at the University of California at
Berkeley.

Cremer was honored for his contributions to the
development of weapons design codes: Drell for
his theoretical investigations of the range of validity
of quantum electrodynamics: and Zweifel for his
contributions to the slowing down and thermalizing
of neutrons, important to the design and develop-

Honors

ment of water-moderated reactors. Goldman was
recognized for his contributions as a radiobiologtsf,
and Shirley v/as cited for his contributions to the
understanding of the chemical nature of matter by
his studies of the interactions of the nucleus with
its electronic environment.

Nobel Prize for Physics. The Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences designated Dennis Gabor.
Hungarian-born British scientist, as recipient of
the 1971 Nobel Prize for Physics. He received the
more than $87,000 av/ard for founding the applied
science of holography, a lensless, three-dimen-
sional imagery system. Gabor, emeritus professor
of applied electron physics at Imperial College of
Science and Technology in London, and a staff
scientist at the CBS Laboratories in Stamford.
Conn., v;as an inventor with more than 100 patents,
many of them relating to his work in holography.

Gabor began v/orking on his optical system in
the late 1940s as he searched for a way to improve
the resolution of electron microscopes so that sci-
entists could "see" a single atom. He named his
new type of photography hologram for the Greek
words halos (whole) and gramma (letter or mes-
sage). With the development of laser light, holog-
raphy became increasingly useful to researchers.

Science Journalism

Howard W. Blakeslec Awards. The American
Heart Association presents its annual Blakeslee
Awards, named in honor of an Associated Press
science editor and founder of the National Associa-
tion of Science Writers, for outstanding reporting
on diseases of the heart and blood vessels. The
1971 awards, consisting of a citation and $500.
were made to three reporters and two television
stations. The reporters v/ere Jane E. Brody of the
New York Times: Harold J. Eager of the Sunday
News, Lancaster, Pa.; and Rachel MacKenzie of
New Yorker magazine. The TV stations were
WHDH-TV of Boston, and WTAR-TV of Norfolk. Va.

James T. Grady Award. The American Chemical
Society presents annually the James T. Grady
Award for Interpreting Chemistry' (or the Public,
with its $2,000 cash prize and a gold medal, to
recognize, encourage, and stimulate outstanding
reporting directly to the public, which materially
increases the public's knowledge and understand-
ing of chemistry, chemical engineering, and re-
lated fields. The 1972 award was given to Dan Q.
Posin. professor of physical science and chairman
of the department of interdisciplinary sciences at
San Francisco State College. Posin authored a
number of popular science books, including a
biooraphy. i'/encfe'e)'cv' The Story ot a Crest Sci-
entist (1948). and also wrote for nov.-soacers. A

noted television and radio personality, he has
produced two TV series: "What's New" and "Dr.
Posin's Universe."

Kalinga Prize. The United Nations Educational.
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
annually presents its Kalinga Prize, named lor an
ancient Indian empire of 2,000 years ago renowned
for its policies of peace, for particular merit in
the popularization of science in writing. In 1971
UNESCO made the award with its $2,400 stipend
to Margaret Mead, the anthropologist, for her writ-
ing covering her life's v/ork v/ith the primitive cul-
tures of the South Pacific.

Miscellaneous

Founders Medal. The National Academy of Engi-
neering annually presents the Founders f4edal.
established in 1965. to honor outstanding contribu-
tions by an engineer both to his profession and to
society. The 1972 recipient of the medal was Edwin
H. Land, president and director of Polaroid Corp.,
who svas cited for his development of cameras,
films, and processes for instant photography, and
for his invention of synthetic polarizers lor light.
During the 1940s Land worked on the idea of a
hand-held camera that would use apparently dry
film and would give a picture instantly. In 1947 ho
demonstrated the Polaroid Land camera, which
became available a year later. One-slcp color
photography followed some ten years afterward.

E. Harris Harbison Av/ard for Gifted Teaching.
The Danforth Foundation annually presents the E.
Harris Harbison Av/ard (or Gifted Teaching, estab-

Howard l.l Tcmin

Information science and technology

lished in the early 1960s, to an outstanding teacher
who has taught for at least five years in an accred-
ited U.S. junior college, college, or university. The
1971 recipient of the $10,000 award, was John G.
King, professor of physics at Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology. King, a leader in educational
innovation and reform, was cited for his introduc-
tion of numerous new methods of teaching into
his undergraduate classes, including approaches
to concentrated study and "corridor labs."

Hoover Medal. The American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, with several other professional
engineering groups, presents the Hoover Medal,
named for its first recipient, former U.S. Pres.
Herbert Hoover, in recognition of outstanding engi-
neers who have performed distinguished public
service. The 1972 medal was given to Luis A. Ferre,
an engineer and governor of Puerto Rico, who was
cited for exemplifying an engineer-humanist’s
achievements in enriching the life of a people.

Information science and
technology

In this era of rapidly expanding knowledge people
must be selective in what they hear and read, and
must rely more and more on systems that will store
this information until it is needed. The problem is
particularly acute for scientists and other special-
ists who have to locate specific information to carry
on their work. Information science and technology
is concerned with devising means for providing
more efficient access to documents and improving
the dissemination of information. To accomplish
these tasks it is necessary to gather together large
quantities of raw information and to process them
into a form that is more easily transferable and
usable. When these processing procedures are
integrated into an efficiently functioning unit, the
result is called an information system.

Since the information problem is worldwide,
devising such systems was a matter of concern to
most nations, as well as to many private organiza-
tions. Many countries and organizations provided
support during the year for the development of in-
formation systems.

Coordinating information services. The Con-
gress of the United States in July 1970 created the
National Commission on Libraries and Information
Science (NCLIS) as an independent agency within
the executive branch of the government. In estab-
lishing NCLIS, Congress responded to the need for
improving information services and for alleviating
some of the problems faced by libraries throughout
the country. During 1970-71 NCLIS spent most of

its energies getting organized. In 1972, however,
it undertook its first major study effort, which was
to take the form of an overview of significant re-
search affecting the library and information worlds.
This study was designed to provide a proper base
from which to plan future operations. In addition,
NCLIS was expected to help coordinate the in-
formation activities of various federal and stale
agencies.

In the United Kingdom, the Office of Scientific
and Technical Information (OSTI) supported vari-
ous research studies and assessments of library
and information needs. These included studies of
the uses made by chemists of scientific news peri-
odicals, of the design of library buildings and
facilities, and of ways to promote the improvement
of public library services.

In Canada, an Office of Library Coordination was
organized by the Council of Ontario Universities to
develop a wide range of cooperative activities
among the provincially assisted university libraries
in Ontario. This office was the result of several
years of planning. Its aim was to provide a means
for achieving close cooperation among the par-
ticipating public libraries in order to provide better
service to students, faculty, and staff.

Many other countries established similar national
and regional centers for coordinating the collection
and dissemination of scientific and technical in-
formation. Clearly, information was being recog-
nized as a national resource, and efforts were
being made to control and use it as efficiently as
possible.

A world science information system. The ex-
change of information does not stop at national
borders, and scientists of different countries have
iong cooperated in sharing knowledge and seeking
the solutions to significant social problems. All
of this has been done on a more or less informal
basis, and a need exists for a more organized and
equitable procedure for coordinating scientific
studies and information.

In 1970 studies of the possibility of establishing
a world science information system (code-named
UNISIST) were begun. In the ensuing two years
much progress was made. In October 1971, a
UNISIST conference was convened in Paris under
the sponsorship of the International Council of
Scientific Unions and the United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). The conference was attended by 240
delegates representing 83 member and affiliated
nations of UNESCO plus observers sent by many
intergovernmental and nongovernmental organi-
zations. On completing its discussions, the con-
ference adopted a broad resolution supporting the
creation of UNISIST and laid the foundation for a

258

Information science and technology

voluntary v/orld scientific and technical informa-
tion system to help scientists and engineers gam
access to the more than tv/o million articles pub-
lished annually in approximately 70,000 specialized
journals. The plan called for the development of
interconnected automated information systems.
Thus, a center in Africa would be able to process
on its computer information stored on tapes that
had been produced in Europe or North America
and immediately tell a researcher what material
had been published in his field.

Many practical problems remained to be solved,
but funds v/ere allocated and plans for implemen-
tation v/ere being prepared. Final approval still had
to be given by the UNESCO General Conference,
scheduled to meet late in 1972.

Library automation. One of the great contribu-
tions to information science and the dissemination
of information was the MARC project (machine-
readable cataloging) of the U.S. Library of Con-
gress. This project recorded on computer tape
bibliographic information for most current English-
language books. Although the value of this project
was recognized, not all libraries had access to the
computer services necessary to process and re-
trieve MARC records. In 1972, however, the MARC-
Oklahoma Data Base Storage and Retrieval Project
went into operation. On request, it searched the
complete MARC data base and provided individual
libraries with bibliographic and cataloging data on
only those books that they had acquired. Thus,
smaller libraries were able to take advantage of the
savings in time and money that computer process-
ing of library records could provide.

MARC tapes were also being supplied to other
countries. The Ontario College Bibliocentre in
Canada was evaluating the benefits to be gained by
using the tapes to provide a centralized and com-
puterized selection, acquisition, processing, and
cataloging service for 20 community libraries.

With the MARC program successfully underway,
the Library of Congress began a new project called
"Cataloging in Publication." Actually, the basic
idea is not new; an experimental project called
"Cataloging-in-Source" was undertaken in 1958-
60. The results of this experiment demonstrated
that although it was possible for the Library of
Congress to catalog some books from page proofs
before publication, the costs and the disruption of
publishing schedules outweighed the benefits.
But in 1972. as a result of new techniques, the
project was revived.

The goal of "Cataloging in Publication" was to
incorporate cataloging data, of the kind nov.- found
on libraiy catalog cards, in the printed book at the
time of publication. Catalogers at the Library of
Congress would receive galley proofs of books

from the publishers. They would then prepare
cataloging information, including Library of Con-
gress call numbers and Dewey classilicalion num-
bers, and the publisher would incorporate the
complete cataloging data m the book. This new
service was expected not only to save processing
costs for individual libraries but also to provide
faster service for library users and even allow small
private libraries and book collectors to arrange
their holdings more efficiently.

Information dissemination systems. Since
scientists generally are most in need of timely in-
formation, many of the professional scientific
societies have responded by creating specialized
information systems. Such systems exist in physics,
chemistry, engineering, psychology, education,
and medicine. During the year those systems ex-
panded their services and new ones were being
formed. The American Geological Institute ap-
proved the concept for a geosciences information
system that was expected to load to a more struc-
tured pattern of services lor the Institute’s 1 7 mem-
ber societies.

The National Library of Medicine in 1972 intro-
duced a new service called MEDLINE. Previously,
hospitals, medical schools, medical libraries, and
related research Institutes had access to medical
literature through an automated system called
MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and Re-
trieval System). In using MEDLARS, a physician or
researcher would generally write or telephone a
request for a search on a given topic to the National
Library of Medicine in Washington. A week or
longer would lapse before he v/ould receive the
results. Now. through MEDLINE, each user installa-
tion would have its own computer terminal con-
nected to a centralized data processing system and
would be able to search a large body of the more
frequently used medical literature and receive
listings of relevant citations in minutes.

The social sciences were also striving to improve
access to the literature in their fields. One impor-
tant study, completed late in 1 971. was the compila-
tion of an international registry of Data Bases in
the Social and Behavioral Sciences under the
auspices of the City University of New York Gradu-
ate Division. This effort was directed toward help-
ing individual scientists locate files of relevant
information outside their immediate specialty.

Frequently, after information ti'sseminat'on
procedures have been proven to be at va'uc in the
sciences, they ce applied to othc' more genera!
fields. For exam, pie. the Federal Bureau of Investi-
gation (FBI) began operating a computer-based
National Crime Informaticn Center (f.'CiC) m *957.
By 1972 the Conte* stored more than ;h*ee m,!i or-,
records conta'nmg info*mnt.on about wanted

Marine sciences

persons, stolen vehicles, license plates, and other
property. Rigid safeguards were employed to in-
sure the security and confidentiality of these files.
The system was being expanded into a nationwide
network and was expected to reduce the number
of duplicate records now stored in local, state, and
other federal agencies and thus save time, money,
and manpower. But more importantly, it was hoped
that the NCIC would result in more effective law
enforcement.

The U.S. Postal Service was also undertaking an
extensive automation project, known as the Letter
Mail Code Sorting System (LMCSS). The old man-
ual letter-sorting system required postal personnel
to read each first-class envelope up to seven times
before delivering it to the recipient. Using LMCSS,
one would have to scan a letter manually only
once, at which time the name and address would
be recorded on the envelope in a code that a com-
puter could read. After being coded, letters would
be conveyed directly to a letter-sorting machine
which would automatically sort them into a storage
bin that represents a specified destination. When
a letter reaches the post office at its destination,
the code would again be used to sort the letters
automatically by street and address into the se-
quence followed by the carrier as he makes his
rounds. When fully operational, this system was
expected to enable the post office to deliver more
than 95% of all first-class mail within two days.

—Harold Borko

See also Year in Review: COMPUTERS.

Marine sciences

Increasing evidence of pollution, even in the deep
oceans, was a source of continuing concern to
oceanographers during the year. Government sup-
port of marine studies continued, and marine
scientists obtained valuable data from these pro-
grams and also as a by-product of space explora-
tion.

Pollution and ecology. The year was an active
one on the ecology and pollution fronts. Delaware
acted to protect its coastal wetlands. According
to Gov. Russell W. Peterson, the people of Dela-
ware “made a choice, and that v/as to use our
valuable bay and coastal areas for recreation and
tourism instead of for another purpose for which
they are admirably suited, industrial grovrth."
Connecticut’s program to save its wetlands was
also making progress. Pres. Richard Nixon pro-
posed a wetlands protection measure as part of a
general land-use planning proposition that would
give priority to coastal areas. A thorough mapping
of coastal wetlands was also planned.

260

Following six years of study, Canada and the
United States signed a Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement to highlight an International Field Year
for the Great Lakes. The agreement called for a
dramatic reduction in the pollution of Lake Erie,
Lake Ontario, and the international portion of the
St. Lawrence Seaway. With the hope that their
initiative v/ould serve as a precedent for worldwide
action at the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972,
12 European nations signed a voluntary pact on
Feb. 14, 1972, at Oslo, Nor., to bar dumping of
harmful substances in a wide area of the Atlantic
Ocean. The pact would take effect as soon as it
was ratified by seven of the signatories.

Scientists were gathering the basic data on many
aspects of the dispersion, removal, and recycling
of pollutants by rivers, the atmosphere, and the
oceans. At the annual meeting of the American
Geophysical Union, V. J. Linnenbom and his col-
leagues reported that the Northern Hemisphere
oceans contribute 60,000,000,000 kg of carbon
monoxide gas to the atmosphere per year. If the
Southern Hemisphere oceans contribute a com-
parable amount, the total is 140 , 000 , 000,000 kg
per year, or about BOfo of that produced by man-
kind’s activities. Carbon monoxide is removed from
the atmosphere in various ways, but these figures
are important for a full understanding of the air
pollution problem.

At the same meeting, R. A. Carr and J. D. Gass-
away described the distribution of mercury in the
oceans. Typical open ocean values range from
10 to 60 nanograms per liter (1 nanogram =
0.000,000,001 grams). Sea ice is a reservoir for
mercury in the geochemical cycle. Other scien-
tists reported on hydrocarbons in the ocean and
their effects on estuaries, on mercury in the Colum-
bia River, and on fluorides in Chesapeake Bay.

E. J. Carpenter and K. L Smith. Jr., described
finding about 3,500 plastic particles per square
kilometer of surface in the Sargasso Sea. These
particles could be the source of the polychlori-
nated biphenyls found recently in marine orga-
nisms. For example, DDT and polychlorinated
biphenyls had been discovered in specimens of
plant and animal life throughout the Atlantic Ocean
by Woods Hole (Mass.) Oceanographic Institution
ships. The full effects on the ocean environment of
relatively indestructable plastic pellets, and the
polychlorinated biphenyls that leach out of them,
had yet to be assessed, however.

Oil. oil spills, cleanup techniques, and the effects
of oil on marine life were the subjects of hundreds
of studies and papers. At the Offshore Technology
Conference in May 1972, for example. 28 papers
were devoted to this problem. VJays to preveni

Marine sciences

spills, to contain spills that have occurred, to clean
them up, and to predict their movement were
described.

Most of the oil in the marine environment comes
from the thousands of ships that clean their fuel
tanks by steam and hot water and pump the result-
ing mixture overboard. The NATO countries agreed
to end this practice in the near future but, in gen-
eral, the outlook for stopping this source of pol-
lution was not bright. The laws that provide penal-
ties against ships discharging their wastes in this
way are almost impossible to enforce. The breakup
of a ship and the failure of an oil-drilling rig are
dramatic examples of oil pollution, but their effects
are really small compared v/ith the cumulative re-
sults of such everyday practices.

Another practice with similar cumulative effects
was identified as the source of SOfi of the oil in
Long Island Sound. When oil in an automobile is
changed, the used oil, which was once collected
and reclaimed, is now more often than not poured
down a sewer. Oil disposed of in this way in any
community near the Sound eventually ends up
polluting its waters.

A more encouraging report came from Great
Britain. The January 1972 Marine Pollution Bulle-
tin reported changes in bird populations on the
Thames River since it was cleaned up. Previously,
the river had been virtually devoid of life except
for hardy scavenging gulls. Now fish are found up-

Aragonite, an unusually line, pure lorm of limestone, is pumped trom an ocean-bed site
near the Bahamas and moved by conveyor (above) to a ship tor delivery to customers (below)
The high purity and unilormity of aragonite make it valuable tor cement and glass making

Courtesy, Holger Knudsen, Marine Biological Laboratory, Dertmork

Sea creatures that normally
move slowly exhibit lively
responses when under attack.
The cockle Cardium echinatum,
when touched by the sea star
Asferias rubens, opens its shell,
thrusts out its tubular foot, and,
pushing violently against the
substrate on which it is resting,
jumps as much as 10 cm. It
continues this maneuver until
the predator is dislodged.

stream as far as the environs of London and large
numbers of migratory birds have returned. (See
Year in Review; ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES.)

Expanding data and improved theories. Better
data require improved theories to explain them.
Improved theories require better data to check
them out. The interaction of theory and data was
underlined during the year in studies of the con-
stancy of ionic proportions, continental drift, and
the tides.

The theory that the major positively and nega-
tively charged ions are in constant proportion in
seawater goes back to a study of water samples
collected by the "Challenger" oceanographic
expedition of 1872-76 and analyzed in 1884 by
C. D. Dittmar. As quantitative chemical analysis
techniques became more exact, this concept was
tested with ever increasing accuracy, sometimes
with results that suggested it was not exactly
true. R. C. Mangelsdorf, Jr., and T. R. S. Wilson

reported on a study of 345 vrater samples from 1
Pacific Ocean along 150’ W from 63’ S to 54=
Samples were compared with standards est;
lished from samples taken from the Sargasso S
No significant variations v/ere found in the rat
of K‘ and Mg-- to Na-, but Ca*- to Na* vari
markedly and systematically, with the botti

262

water having more Ca** relative to surface waters.

With the acceptance of the theory of continental
drift, the questions of "which way” and "when”
began to arise. After studying data obtained from
the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep
Earth Sampling (JOIDES) project and other data,
W. C. Pittman III tentatively modeled the evolution
of the North and South Atlantic. According to this
model, Africa and North America began to drift
apart 180 million to 200 million years ago. Africa
and South America began to drift apart 139 million
years ago, while Eurasia and North America' started
to separate only 80 million years ago.

In 1921 A. T. Doodson published an important
analysis of the harmonics of the tides. It took 50
years before better astronomical data became
available, but during the year D. E. Cartwright and
R. H. Taylor of the National Institute of Oceanog-
raphy of Great Britain published new computations
of the tide-generating potential. As a sign of the
times, the basic tables were given in the form of a
computer printout. These improved tables v/ere
needed for many scientific studies, such as that
of Walter Munk and his co-v/orkers, who were
working on the problem of the global tides by
measuring them in the transition zone between
coastal and deep-sea v/aters.

Marino sciences

Status of oceanographic programs. In the
United States, support for oceanographic research
appeared to be holding its ov/n or increasing
slightly. The Navy’s budget for such research
totaled S204 million, compared with S200 million
a year earlier, v;hile the National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration (NOAA) program was
increased by almost 20%. Through the National
Science Foundation, the United Stales was
helping to support the International Decade of
Ocean Exploration (IDOE), The NSF v/as also su-
porting a program called Research Applied to
National Needs (RANN). Many programs in marine
science met the RANN criteria, but it v/as under-
stood that only S12 million was available for en-
vironmental studies and that S300 million to S400
million in proposals had already been submitted.

The IDOE program, recently described by E. M.
Davin and F. D. Jennings, involved more than 30
countries in multidisciplinary ocean research pro-
grams in the areas of environmental quality, en-
vironmental forecasting, and seabed assessment.
Other currently active programs included the Mid
Ocean Dynamic Experiment (MODE) and a study
of how the tectonic plate originating at the mid-
Pacific rise moves and is consumed in the Peruvian
trench, which encompassed the fields of marine
geology, continental drift, and plate tectonics.

The shortage of students entering engineering,
including ocean engineering, continued, probably
because of the current high unemployment rate
in the field. Mrs. Betty Vetter of the Scientific

s.docy Hofrit. BUUniH OF THE ATOVIC SCIENTISTS

"Look Buric fc'ipMs’dc — fo-
fo Cleon i; un ''

Manpower Commission predicted that there would
be a shortage of engineers by 1980. It appeared
that overreaction to what was almost certainly a
temporary situation might preclude a promising
career for many young people.

Space technology and marine science. The U.S.
deep space probe Pioneer 10. launched on March 2,
1972, carried a message that, in a million years or
so, might reach intelligent life on some other
planet outside our solar system. The message was
designed to tell its recipients the location of our
star, the sun, to within one star in one thousand,
the location of earth m our solar system, what men
and women look like and how big they are. It will
not, hov/ever, fell them that life on the earth is
possible because of its oceans, continents, and
atmosphere or that life started in the oceans.
Cart Sagan, Linda Sagan, and Frank Drake, who
devised the message, conceded that "it can bo
improved upon" and expressed the hope that
future spacecraft sent beyond our solar system
would carry more detailed messages.

The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration (NASA) was developing an Earth Resources
Program with numerous marine science applica-
tions. To test instruments for possible use on cither
unmanned or manned spacecraft, NASA flev/ pro-
totype instruments on aircraft and installed them
on platforms. Results of the experiments were des-
cribed in the first through the fourth annual Earth
Resources Program Reviews, published by the
Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. Tex.

These studies reached fruition In the instrumen-
tation of the unmanned Earth Resources Tech-
nology Satellite (ERTS), launched in mid-1972.
ERTS was planned ns the first of many systems de-
signed to study the earth from space with agricul-
tural. geologic, land management, marine resource,
oceanographic, and meteorological implications.
For marine science, it would provide valuable pho-
tographic and other data on coastlines and coastal
wetlands that wore expected to become available
during late 1972 and 1973.

The projected manned orbiting space platform
Skylab. along with many other experiments, would
carry an Earth Resources Experiment Package
consisting of S193. a multispherica! photographic
facility; S19I. an infrared spectrometer; S192. a
multispectral scanner; Si 93, a microv/nvo system:
and S19-1. a radiometer. Skylab was scheduled for
launch m May 1973. and would be manned during
three periods extending through Decom.be' 1973

Ot particuia' interest war, S193, a combma.tion
scanning pencil te.am pasr vc m cro.v,i.-e-,active
radar and rad.i' ahim-ete'. The scann-nc pencil
be.nrn passive m'crawa.'c-actr.e rad.a- would
mcasu'e th-e natu'ai a'’d bac'Seattered rad'ntcn

Mathematics

from the sea surface at 13.3 GHz (1 gigaHertz =
1,000,000,000 Hertz) over a wide swath to each
side of the satellite. Using measurements of this
type made from aircraft, it has been demonstrated
that winds over the ocean surface can be inferred
from these data, while L. M. Druyan showed that
the surface atmospheric pressure can be deter-
mined from the winds and a few scattered ship
reports. These data combined with the infrared
atmospheric sounding techniques developed for
the Nimbus meteorological satellite should pro-
vide greatly improved weather and wave forecasts,
especially for the Southern Hemisphere.

R. K. Moore and W. Pierson used the results of
studies of the data obtained by the aircraft program
and available meteorological and oceanographic
theories to predict the usefulness of the data to
be obtained by the radar-radiometer mode of S193.
They found that the data should provide ideal in-
formation on the synoptic-scale (as opposed to
local) winds in the planetary boundary layer of
the atmosphere.

The altimeter mode of SI 93 can measure the
distance between the spacecraft and the surface
of the ocean to within a few meters. Though it
may seem strange to laymen, the oceanographers
do not know where the surface of the ocean is
relative to the center of the earth. The gravity field
of the earth is warped because of inhomogeneities
of mass in the upper mantle which cause the sur-
face of the ocean to vary by tens of meters from the
oblate spheroid that represents an approximation
to the shape of the earth. The oceans are not level,
and even a level stretch of ocean has bumps and
hollows in it.

—Willard Pierson
See also Year in Review: ASTRONAUTICS AND
SPACE EXPLORATION. Earth Satellites.

Mathematics

Geometry is a branch of mathematics for which a
brief definition seems impossible. It is varied and
broad. Elements of what most mathematicians
would consider to be geometry appear in most
areas of modern mathematics, and geometry in its
ov/n right is a subject of enormous scope. The
most inclusive definition, given by Felix Klein in
1872 and known as the Erlanger Programm. states
that geometry (roughly) is the study of symmetries
of certain structures on sets. By making the struc-
tures more and more specialized and detailed
various geometries and subgeometries arise to be
studied in turn. On the other hand, one can specify
the symmetries in an abstract manner (they v/ill
form a group), proceeding then to study those

structures which admit the given group as a group
of symmetries. The symmetries are known in gen-
eral as isomorphism of the structure.

The Erlanger Programm is highly successful,
even though it does not include all the topics that
might be called geometry. In each specialized
geometry of the Erlanger Programm, there are
many questions to consider that are appropriate
only to that geometry, but it is generally agreed that
a question is "geometrically meaningful” only if it
is formulated in a manner harmonious with the
symmetries of the geometry being examined.

For example. Euclidean (plane) geometry studies
a set called the plane whose elements are called
points. The Euclidean structure allows measure-
ment of distances and angles. The symmetries of
the Euclidean structure are called congruences.
Although several severe crises arose in the 19th
century affecting the foundations of Euclidean
geometry, they were resolved satisfactorily by 1930
through definitive treatments of the foundations by
David Hilbert and his followers. There is little, if
any, research of importance being done now in
Euclidean geometry, and current trends in educa-
tion de-emphasize Euclidean geometry in favor of
set-theoretic and topological concepts.

Current research in geometry covers too broad
an area to be surveyed in a short article. For this
reason, this discussion will not deal with algebraic
geometry, finite geometries, and coordinatization,
all of which are now considered parts of abstract
algebra. Of the remaining areas of geometry, the
one closest to classical problems is differential
geometry, which is the study of geometry by meth-
ods of the infinitesimal calculus. Thus, the subject
is no older than differential calculus itself, about
300 years. But differential geometry is rooted in the
study of the bending and twisting of curves and
surfaces, and interest in such problems antedates
the discovery of the calculus.

Differentiable manifolds. At present, the main
effort in differential geometry is directed tov/ard
the study of differentiable manifolds and various
structures they can carry. Differentiable manifolds
are topological spaces: that is, they are sets of
points with certain distinguished subsets called
open sets (or neighborhoods), tv/o points in an
open set being considered in some sense to be
"nearby." Furthermore, differentiable manifolds
are topological manifolds. Each point of a dif-
ferentiable manifold is contained in an open set
that is required to be homeomorphic (the name for
isomorphisms in the topological setting) to an open
set in a Euclidean space, and two distinct points
can be enclosed in disjoint open sets (Hausdorff
property). The special open sets so singled out on
the manifold are called coordinate domains, and

264

Mathematics

Scientists at the Applied
/.fathcmatics Institute ol Tbilisi
State University in the U S S Tt
maye calculations on an
advanced computer Soviet-bloc
countries are buying computers
trom U S and West European
manutacturers. but their
goal IS scll-sutlicicncy By
1975 the USSR hopes to bo
producing 12.000 to 15.000
third-generation computers
annually These will equip a
network ol 4.000 computer
centers set up to monitor
a predicted national economic
growth rate of 37 to 40°,.

the homeomorphic correspondences to Euclidean
open sets are called local coordinates.

A topological manifold is covered with coordi-
nate domains in a v;ay resembling an often-
repaired automobile inner tube covered with
patches. When tv/o of these patches overlap, the
open set were they intersect is described by two
sets of local coordinates. The topological manifold
is a differentiable manifold if the changes of local
coordinates from one system to another always
have continuous partial derivatives ol sulliciently
high order. Thus, the manifold v/ill be composed of
a certain number of connected pieces, and the
dimension of the Euclidean space furnishing the
local coordinates will be the same everywhere on
a given piece; it is called the dimension of (that
piece of) the manifold.

A differentiable manifold is therefore a gen-
eralization of the Euclidean space of coordinates.
Viewed as a whole, a manifold is a contorted and
twisted object, but in the small, thanks to the co-
ordinate patches, it looks like a piece of Euclidean
space. Thus, it has an infinitesimal linear struc-
ture. The manifold has tangenl vectors (corre-
sponding to vectors in a Euclidean space), but they
are fixed at a base point and cannot to shifted
around vrithout an additional structure, called an
afime connection. Ail tangent vectors with a given
base point form a vector space, called the tangent
space of the manifold at the point. All the tangeni
spaces lit tooether into a nevr differentiable mani-
fold called the tangent manifold of the original;
this has twice the dim.onsion of the ongin.a’.

If one picks out a tangent vector at each pc nt c.
the manifold in such a way that the chosen vector
vanes smoothly as the base point vanes, a vccts*

field IS obtained. If one supposes the tangent vec-
tors to be hairs, then making the vector fields
smooth corresponds to combing the hair dov/n so
that there are no cowlicks, whirls, nor, generally,
any singularities. On a torus, a differentiable
manifold that can be visualized as the surface of an
inner tube, many smooth vector fields exist, while
on a two-dimensional sphere no smooth vector
field can be found.

The first explanation of this came from L. E, J.
Brouwer, who used homology theory (a branch
of algebraic topology) to examine vector fields
on spheres. In 1927, H. Hopf gave a more inclusive
explanation. He supposed that the vector field was
smooth except at a finite set of points (singulari-
ties) and assigned to each of them an integer—
the index— which measured its failure to be
smoothable. Kopf showed that the sum of all the
indexes at all the singularities was a number de-
pending only on the topological nature of the mani-
fold and not upon the particular vector field con-
sidered. He calculated this sum, finding its value
to be a topological invariant, the Euler charac-
teristic ol the manifold. The Euler characteris-
tic of a two-dimensiona! sphere is 2, and so
there must be nt least two singularities of index
1 or a singularity of higher index. If there are rip
singularities, the Euler characteristic of the imani-
fofd must be 0; conversely, the mnmfoid h.as a
smooth tange.nt vector field with no S'ngu'.a’/ties
if the cha'actcristic is 0 (for examp’-e. the to'us).

Recent;.', .V. T. Atry.ah and J. L. O'upsnt cene-.ai-
iz-'d Hopfs results. They con: dem-g a fm :e r.um.-
be'. r. cf sm.ooth tnn'rent vectc* f.c'd: on a c 'te--
e-,!'nb'e mamfo'd cf d —c": on g-m.::.- than r, A

Medicine

span an r-dimensional vector subspace of the
tangent space. Atiyah and Dupont supposed the
singularities to occur at a finite number of isolated
points and assigned to each an index, which was
no longer an integer but an element of a homotopy
group. Summing the indexes over all the singular-
ities, they obtain an element of a homotopy group
and the vanishing of this element is a necessary
and sufficient condition for r vector fields to exist
with no singularities.

Besides homotopy theory, other tools from
algebraic topology are used, specifically K-theory.
This invention of A. Grothendieck's plays an ex-
ceedingly important rote in current research in
topology and is beginning to be used in various
parts of differential geometry.

If instead of r tangent vector fields one con-
siders the r-dimensional plane they are to span in
each tangent space, the notion of a distribution is
obtained. Specifically, a distribution of r-planes on
a differentiable manifold selects an r-dimensional
subspace from each of the tangent spaces and
does so in a smooth fashion from point to point.
A distribution of r-planes is called a foliation if the
manifold can be filled up with disjoint r-dimension-
al submanifolds, each of which is tangent to the
selected r-plane at each of its points. As a conse-
quence of Hopf's theorem, the two-dimensional
sphere can have no foliation by 1 -planes. The
three-dimensional sphere has a foliation by 2-
planes, discovered by G. Reeb. Recently, A. Durfee
and I. Tamura discovered a way to foliate any odd-
dimensional sphere by planes of one dimension
lower (codimension-one). H. Blain Lawson, Jr.,
and Durfee showed how to obtain codimension-
one foliations on a large set of manifolds that are,
from the viewpoint of algebraic topology, not too
complicated. They obtain obstructions to finding
such foliations involving integral 2-torsion of the
homology.

Status of the discipline. Differential geometry is
currently vigorous and growing. There is a wide
variety of current research that makes contact with

other fields of mathematics, including topoloc
ordinary and partial differential equations, a
algebraic geometry. The benefits flow in bo
directions across the interfaces, and different
geometry has contributed its full share to tl
globalization of analysis that has occurred sin
World War II. As a course in university instructic
differential geometry remains important; for e
ample, the place of geometry in the undergradue
curriculum was recently the subject of a syi
posium conducted by the Ohio Section of t
Mathematical Association of America.

The methods of Elie Cartan ( 1869-19511 f
most profound and original geometer of the 2C

266

century^ are beginning to be widely understood,
thanks mainly to the unflagging efforts of S. S.
Chern, who spent more than three decades ex-
plaining and extending Cartan's work, while him-
self contributing a substantial share of the original
work in differential geometry in that time. Early
resistance to Cartan's ideas arose in part from his
use of infinitesimals, banished from mathematics
in the 19th century. The introduction of the notion
of fiber bundles in the early 1940s allowed an
alternate description of Cartan's ideas within an
acceptable context and led to the discovery by
Chern of characteristic classes, which now play a
prominent role in differential geometry and alge-
braic topology.

It is interesting to speculate about the sub-
sequent development of differential geometry
if in 1940 geometers had been in possession of A.
Robinson's nonstandard analysis (1960), which
shows how infinitesimals can be restored to mathe-
matical legitimacy in a perfectly rigorous way. The
time is ripe for an exposition of Cartan's work
based on nonstandard analysis, and students of
geometry are hopeful that one will come within the
next ten years. One omen for this is the appearance
this year of a rigorous beginning calculus book
written by H. J. Keisler and based entirely on
Robinson's methods.

—Nathaniel Grossman

Medicine

Significant developments in medicine in the past
year are presented below under the title General
Medicine. The section is followed by a more de-
tailed look at six areas in which there were special
developments or accomplishments in the same
period. The six are Paramedical Personnel, Al-
coholism, Psychiatry, Death and Dying, Dentistry,
and Venereal Disease.

General medicine

The physician and the delivery of health care con-
tinued to come under closer public scrutiny in the
U.S. and throughout the rest of the world, with the
possible exceptions of the Republic of China and
the Soviet Union. The private practice of medicine,
so long a cherished tradition by physician as well
as patient was under heavy fire for its failure to pro-
vide a system of equal health care to all people in
the United States. Instead of just coming from the
impoverished blacks and browns in urban ghettos,
serious questioning of the American medical
system was beginning to come from middle class
white families, who were finding more and more

Medicine

that health care in the U.S., as good as it was. was
simply not sufficiently available. The high and con-
tinuously rising cost of medical care was not the
sole consideration. The distribution of health ser-
vices— hospitals, clinics, physicians’ private offices
— v/as of equal concern. Physicians not only were
fleeing urban America along with middle class
v/hites but tended to establish their private prac-
tices in areas where climate and lifestyle were more
ideal. California, the southvrest, northwest, and
Florida were the most popular locations lor physi-
cians, both young and old. This left situations in
other areas of the country that had even people
v/ith the ability to pay for private medical attention
unable to find physicians, especially pediatricians,
general practitioners, and internists, who could
take on new cases.

Other areas in the health care delivery system
were locked in struggles. One such battle related
to the efficacy of various drugs in preventing death
from blockage of the coronary arteries (arter-
iosclerosis). Blockage of the coronary artery was
accounting for 80% of the deaths from heart
disease in American males and in 1972 v/as ranked
as the first cause of disability or death in the U.S.
A number of drugs had been found to lower blood
cholesterol. Over 8,000 U.S. men were participating
in a current study of the National Heart and Lung
Institute attempting to find the most effective
agent, The subjects, ranging in age from 30 to 64.
had one thing in common; each had suffered a
previous myocardial infarction (heart attack). Final
results would not be known until 1974, but medical
science already was embroiled in debate, arguing:
(1) whether cholesterol was really the key factor to
be controlled. (2) whether drugs were superior to
prevention via exercise and diet, and (3) whether
a massive study of men whose hearts were already
"sick" would be valuable to the healthy.

In the interim, clinical investigators in both
Scotland and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Eng., reported
that one of the drugs being tested in the U.S..
clofibrate, was associated with fewer heart attacks
when used by a group of men who suffered pre-
viously only from angina— "chronic chest pain"
that is related to the oxygen starvation occurring
in the heart as arteriosclerosis builds its barriers.
The studies were considered the best evidence yet
that medicine may find an effective chemical
weapon against heart disease.

Another study, conducted in the southern U.S..
showed that hard-working black and white share-
croppers had an extremely tow incidence of heart
disease even though they had high levels of choles-
terol and a high incidence of cardiovascular ab-
normalities.

Acupuncture

On April 21, 1972, at Weiss Memorial Hospital in
Chicago, Dr, Wei Chi Liu performed atonsilectomy
on a 31 -year-old male nurse, Gary Chinn, What
distinguished the otherwise commonplace opera-
tion was the absence of any of the anesthetics
ordinarily used in Western medicine. Instead, the
patient was anesthetized by acupuncture, the age-
old Chinese practice in which needles are inserted
at specified points in the body.

Gary Chinn's tonsilectomy was one of several
surgical procedures using acupuncture anesthesia
that took place in U,S. hospitals in mid-1972. Only
a year or two earlier, American medical men had
regarded acupuncture (if they regarded it at all)
as a quaint cultural survival, but by 1 972 it was the
subject of intense interest and study.

The scene for this change had been set in the
political arena, as China and the U.S. made tenta-
tive advances toward normalizing their relations
and Americans were admitted to China for the
first time in more than 20 years. Pres. Richard
Nixon’s much-publicized trip to Peking gave rise
to a fad for things Chinese. More to the point,
U.S. doctors returned from China with reports of
having witnessed major operations in which only
slender, vibrating needles were used to deaden
pain. The patients remained conscious and were
able to converse with the surgeons. They said

they felt no pain, although sometimes they could
feel their organs being manipulated. In some cases,
they sipped tea or ate pieces of orange while the
operation was proceeding.

The use of acupuncture as an anesthetic during
surgery was relatively new, but acupuncture had
been practiced as a form of curative medicine for
some 3,000 years. Legend has it that acupuncture
originated when an ancient emperor observed that
soldiers struck by arrows sometimes obtained
relief from ailments in other parts of their bodies.
In time, a body of philosophical concepts grew up
around it, involving the ideas of yin and yang, the
active and passive principles of the universe.

In traditional acupuncture, the body is divided
by 12 meridians, the pathways of the body’s vital
energies. Disease is seen as an imbalance in these
energies, and the imbalance is corrected by in-
serting needles at one or several of 365 points on
the head, trunk, and extremities. The practitioner
is guided by elaborate charts, the oldest known of
which is a bronze model of about a.d. 860. The
needles may be of different metals, each with a
special significance, although today stainless
steel needles are most frequently used. They may
be inserted only a short distance or deeply into the
body, and sometimes they are rotated or vibrated.
Since the points for insertion are based on the
meridians, they may bear no visible relationship to
the illness being treated.

A deaf child receives
acupuncture treatment at the
School for the Deal No. 3 in
Peking. The cure is said to last
approximately one year.

Stern from Block Sfor

Chinczc surgeons operate on
the spinal column ol a
20-year-old man anesthetized
by acupuncture The hve
silver needles inserted into his ea'.
nee!', and hand are periodically
vibrated by a sir-volt electric
current

Cures and remissions of many diseases have
been claimed for acupuncture, but Western sci-
ence has no explanation of why-or even vvhether
-it v/orks. Skeptical doctors have postulated a
placebo effect-the patient is cured because ho
believes the cure will work-and note that rnany of
the ailments for which acupuncture seems to suc-
ceed have a large psychosomatic component
Others, while discounting yin and
that the ancient Chinese doctors sturnbled m
something that works, just as herbalists y
and error, built up a pharmacopoeia of folk me
cines. many of which have real
The most likely interpretation is that the
some way affect the nervous system. One ’'^eoty
that acupuncture's anesthetic •■oate-

the sensations caused by the needles gate

ways" in the spinal cord and thalamus through
which painful sensations reach the

Europeans have long shown some mi >
acupuncture. It reached France via Indoc^ .
a number ol French doctors who .

ponctcur claim it has helped patients o “L ,
benefit from conventional treatment. ^ ^

Union is said to have it under study. ri - ‘

States, however, it has been confined Inrgel, to
Chinese communities.

Even in China, acupuncture was ■‘- "f
official disfavor prior to the Communist ;

Mao Tso-tung. however, encourage^, a --
tion ol traditional and modem rr.ed.cme a..d. to__

lov/ing his dicta, traditional practitioners and doc-
tors trained in the Western mode began working
together. The trend gained momentum during the
Cultural Revolution, when doctors from the cities
v/ere sent to work in the countryside. Today.
Chinese doctors claim their practice includes the
best of both worlds. (See Feature Article: SCIENCE
IN CHINA.)

It is acupuncture ns an anesthetic that has re-
ceived the most publicity in the West. Partly this
is because it is spectacular. Further, although
Western anesthesiology is highly developed, a
certain small percentage ol patients sutler severe
reactions or even die from the effects of chemical
anesthetics. If acupuncture could be substituted,
medicine would have gained a valuable tool.

This docs not appear to bo in the immediate fu-
ture. however. The haste with which Western doc-
tors are studyino acupuncture stem.s partly from
the fear that, unless the medical profession ta'-es
a credible stand one way or the other, it m.ny be-
come a fad and fall into the hands of guaeVs. Sam,-
ucl Holler, head cl the ffevr Yor'>; State Board of
Mf'dicmo. predicts that it will be two to five yc.a-r,
be'lore any fmat judgm.ent can be madn. Chmese
doctors themselves warn that acupuncture anes-
thes’a 15 rtot al.va>-s suitab’e and that, even when it
IS used, it must sometimes be supp’ementc- by
chemicat anesthetics, f.'e.crthc'ess, as cl t5/2 it
appe.arcd that acupuncture h.ad em'-^-gr-g from, the
rrcd'Cv.^

Medicine

break alone. The highly contagious smallpox virus
spread quickly to Iran and Pakistan. A Yugoslav
Muslim carried the disease back from a religious
pilgrimage: a Yugoslav worker imported it into
West Germany; and public health officials franti-
cally established mass vaccination programs as
modern transportation threatened to send the
disease across all of Europe. By spring the out-
break appeared under control and the World
Health Organization continued to predict eradica-
tion of smallpox by 1976— some 170 years after
Edward Jenner introduced his "cowpox" vaccine.

The U.S. Public Health Service (PHS), mean-
while, recommended that compulsory vaccination
for smallpox be dropped from the health codes of
all states. The infrequent but serious reactions to
the vaccine that occurred were a greater risk at
this time than smallpox itself, the PHS said. The
last U.S. case of the disease was recorded in 1949.

The epidemics of concern to U.S. health planners
were venereal disease (see Venereal Disease, be-
low) and drug abuse. In a historic and controversial
decision, the PHS recommended that private and
clinic physicians alike begin routinely testing
women patients for gonorrhea. An estimated
650,000 U.S. women were asymptomatic carriers
among the 2,250,000 persons who contracted the
disease each year. A simple, self-contained test
kit for gonococci was made available to private
practitioners, who were already detecting four of
every five VD cases in the nation.

Resolving drug abuse problems. Drug abuse
was a no less widespread but quite different prob-

lem. While considerable federal attention was
focused on such "hard drugs” as cocaine and
heroin— there were an estimated 650,000 U.S.
heroin addicts spending S2 billion yearly to main-
tain their habit— the prime method of treatment
came under fire. Methadone was dispensed by
450 clinics nationwide as a chemical blocker and
antagonist of heroin. It was found that some clinics
were not requiring the addicts to consume their
methadone during their visits, allowing the drug
(which produces a mild "high” of its own) to be
sold elsewhere to drug abusers. Several persons,
many of them children, died of methadone over-
doses. More stringent dispensary methods were
instituted as the pharmaceutical industry an-
nounced a stepped-up campaign to develop a
safer narcotic antagonist, perhaps one that would
also replace morphine and other strongly addicting
substances used in medical practice to lessen ex-
treme pain.

Federal controls were initiated to reduce am-
phetamine abuse. Overprescription of these drugs
by well-meaning doctors and overproduction by
drug firms were spotlighted as the leading causes
of this kind of abuse as well as of the skyrocketing
barbiturate problem. In 1972, U.S. suppliers were
being asked to reduce their amphetamine produc-
tion by about 80%. At the same time, physicians’
organizations were urging members to confine
their prescriptions of such drugs to those situa-
tions where another, safer agent could not do the
job, such as narcolepsy (sleep epilepsy) and
severe hyperkinesis in children.

Blood gases in a premature baby
are monitored by an experimental
electric microsensor introduced
through the umbilical artery into
the infant's aorta. University
of Arizona pediatrician Thomas
Harris and a California firm
designed the oxygen-measuring
electrode in an effort to avoid
missing the signs of distress not
detected when blood-gas
samples are taken
only periodically.

D<r.» Dovhi. VEDICAl V/0?lD N£V-'5

272

A study commissioned by the National Commis-
sion on Marihuana and Drug Abuse showed that
24 million Americans have tried marijuana at least
once. Of these, 8.4 million became regular users.
The commission’s chief recommendations in its
marijuana report were two: a national policy of
discouragement of marijuana use and the de-
criminalization of marijuana in cases involving use
of the drug in the privacy of the home or use in an
obvious social situation. The commission recom-
mended continuation of strong penalties for the
sale of large amounts of marijuana for profit (as
opposed to the sale of one marijuana cigarette to
a friend at cost). It also recommended, in keeping
with its intent to keep the marijuana problem out
of the overloaded criminal justice system, that the
contraband theory in law be applied to public
possession cases made by law enforcement
officers. This wauid mean that a policeman could
seize marijuana from a person in a public place
without having to arrest him. The growing of mari-
juana in a flower box or elsewhere would still be
considered a criminal action under the commis-
sion's recommendations.

The 13 commissioners, including eminent phy-
sicians, psychiatrists, and lawyers, were impressed
in their year's study of marijuana use in the U.S.
and throughout the world with the fact that incar-
ceration for marijuana offenses may cause far more
serious physical and emotional harm to an individ-
ual than smoking marijuana. The commission
urged that studies of the long-range effects of
marijuana use on the body be started immediately.
It deplored the lack of such scientific information.
At the same time, the commission had to take into
consideration the overwhelming evidence from
scientific and social inquiry that showed mari-
juana used in moderation has no serious ill effects
on the body or mind.

Within a few months after the commission’s
report was released, bills were introduced in Con-
gress and in a number of state legislatures to re-
duce penalties for marijuana use and possession
along lines suggested by the commission report.
Penalties for simple possession (one ounce or
less) of marijuana ranged from seven days in
Nebraska to life imprisonment in Texas. The com-
mission was to review its marijuana recommenda-
tions in its second report on drug abuse in general
due in March 1973.

Organized medicine. The public and private
lives of doctors were becoming increasingly
stressful by the threat of massive changes. Na-
tional health insurance, stalled in Congress until
after the 1972 presidential elections, would surely
change the method by which the patient paid his
bills. But for the doctor it would mean much more:

Courtesy, Lawrence B. Plnneo, Stanford Research Institute

A monkey moves its paralyzed right arm by means of a
Programmed Brain Stimulator, a computer that
sequentially fires electrodes implanted in the brain stem.
Such a device may eventually enable persons paralyzed
by brain damage to regain use of their limbs.

audits of his practice procedures, paperwork, and
the real possibility that he would no longer control
the level of his fees. For these and many other
reasons, in recent months U.S. doctors had begun
to talk of unionization.

Some physicians preferred to call their organiza-
tions guilds or merely associations, but the dif-
ference between the new organizations of that title
and those that said they were unions seemed purely
semantic. All were striving for a "new profession-
alism" and a collective voice in the socioeconomic
struggles ahead. In March 1972, 30 doctors formed
the Nevada Physicians Union and became affiliated
with a local of the AFL-CIO. In March, over 100
private practitioners met in San Antonio, Tex., to
form the American Physicians Union. In April, over
600 San Francisco area physicians formed the
Union of American Physicians. Still small and
unorganized, the trend to physicians' unions
seemed obvious. The key question in the move-

273

Medicine

ment was whether a doctor could or would go on
strike. Since the idea of these organizations came
from the interns and residents who united to stage

job actions" a few years before, the answer might
well be affirmative.

The traditional voice of medicine in the U.S. has
been the American Medical Association (AMA). In
his inaugural speech, the organization's 1971-72
president, Wesley Hall of Nevada, asked fora con-
stitutional convention to reform the organization.
While resisting the proposal, the AMA House of
Delegates agreed to hold hearings on it over the
next year. Because some doctors thought the AMA
too conservative, while others condemned it as
liberal for proposing its own national health in-
surance plan, any attempts at change would prove
doubly difficult.

Yet another potential spokesman in medical
affairs was the newly formed Institute of Medicine
of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). Since
the U.S. Civil War, the academy had been a re-
spected adviser to the government in matters of
science. Very few physicians were elected to mem-
bership, and the medical issues considered by the
NAS expert groups were comparatively rare. In
1970, a separate wing of the academy was formed
by a mass admission of several score nationally
famous medical leaders. At this point, the Institute
of Medicine was confining itself to considerations
of broad social and ethical issues, such as death
and dying. But if the history of the parent academy
was a guide, the new body's voice would soon be
heard in specific matters of national policy. (See
Death and Dying, below.)

Of course, medical ethics is a serious concern,
and in recent months the public had increased
insight of the doctor's day-to-day ethical concerns.
The Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life
Sciences, a nonaffiliated private group with mem-
bers at dozens of medical schools, seminaries, and
even in Congress, became the focus for a number
of public controversies. The institute's spokesmen
condemned a Texas physician who investigated
the side effects of oral contraceptives by giving
placebos to a group of uneducated, Mexican-
American women. Several became pregnant. On
M occasion, the Journal of the American
Medica Association was criticized for publishing
Federal Bureau of Investigation wanted notices of

aZed fh.T'lh- The institute

argued that this was a clear violation of doctor-

s == r sr s'r,:

Medical Education, headed by John Mm-
p™pos,d ,ha,

274

Courtesy, Dr. James G. White, MEDICAL WORLD NEV/S

An electron micrograph of a blood platelet, the particle
that aggregates to arrest bleeding, shows the open
canal system winding through the organelle's interior.
Platelet dysfunction was implicated in numerous diseases
in which blood clotting or bleeding is a factor.

schools. Instead, Minis' report recommended in-
creasing enrollments in existing schools while
reducing the training required from four to just
two years. This could be done by diversifying and
specializing the students' training at an earlier
stage on the way to the M.D. degree. Despite these
revolutionary proposals, spokesmen for organized
medicine praised the study as "the most com-
prehensive" since the 1909 report by Abraham
Flexnef, which had set the course for U.S. medical
schools to date.

Research and funding. Any drastic change in
medical education would require an equally im-
pressive change in the pattern of federal funding.
Currently, little support was given actual educa-
tional programs. The bulk of federal tax moneys
going to medical schools was for research and
patient care. For the coming months, the "stars"
of medical research would include cancer, heart
disease, and sickle-cell anemia. Investigators in all
three fields received large increases in congress-
ional appropriations for the coming year. Cancer
received the first and largest increase (see Feature
Article: CANCER UNDER ATTACK). Heart disease
followed, as both leading killers received nothing
less than "Manhattan Project" pledges of federal
backing.

Sickle-cell anemia, by contrast, v/as a signifi-
cantly less frequent threat to life. It received its
name because certain drugs and environmental
conditions cause the red blood cells of its victims
to collapse into a sickle shape. It occurs predom-

Medicine

inantly among blacks, and even then, among non-
African blacks (an estimated 40 million West
Africans carry the trait) the genetically acquired
trait occurs far less frequently than such other
diseases as diabetes or hypertension. Nonetheless,
at least two million blacks in the U.S. carried the
trait, and more than 45,000 were estimated to suffer
crises of medical significance each year. Those
with the trait had to be particularly careful about
flying or exerting themselves at relatively high
altitudes.

The national sickle-cell program authorized by
Congress was to provide $105 million over three
years, beginning in 1973. Emphasis would be on
treatment, screening, and counseling. Despite the
availability of cheap, rapid screening tests, many
victims do not discover that they have the disease
until the first crisis occurs. Until recently, sickle-
cell anemia was a neglected recipient of research
funds, averaging less than $1 million annually.

Mobilized medicine. Major efforts would be
devoted during the next two or three years to de-
tecting breast cancer by means of mobile X-ray
units and intensified pubiic education campaigns.
The drive was launched by the American Cancer
Society, which noted that the incidence of breast
cancer had not declined in 35 years. Communi-
ties v/ould be asked to push for such projects
as the "Cancermobile,” sponsored by the Brooklyn
chapter of ACS and the Holy Family Hospital. This
mobilized detection center utilized refined radio-
logic techniques, such as mammography and
thermography, to pick out breast tumors in their
earliest stage.

Ironically, the public health drive that first
proved the value of mobile detection units was
fading from the American scene. Vans carrying
chest X-ray units for tuberculosis detection had
done their job, according to the National Tubercu-
losis and Respiratory Disease Association. TB was
now too infrequent to justify continued use of the
red-and-white vans, a familiar sight in shopping
centers, church parking lots, and other community
centers since after World War II.

But the U.S. is basically a culture on wheels, and
its concerns in health care were hardly excepted.
Major public and professional campaigns were
sprouting coast-to-coast to improve systems of
prehospital emergency care. In the past, clinicians
had derided most ambulance services as "taxis for
sick people.” But nowthe technology and the funds
v/ere becoming available to give patients better
care on their way to the hospital. Three federal
programs and uncatalogued scores of community
groups in Kansas City, Mo., Akron, O., and Grand
Rapids, Mich., were improving emergency systems
v/ith the assistance of such national groups as the

AMA, American College of Physicians, American
Heart Association, and ACT (Advanced Coronary
Treatment) Foundation.

Much of the technology and training for better
ambulance-to-hospital care was provided by
medical interest in mobile coronary care units.
Highly sophisticated units in such cities as Seattle,
Wash., Miami, Fla., and Columbus, O., featured
highly trained paramedical personnel who could
give treatments on the spot with the advice of a
doctor who communicated with them via radio and
telemetry. In the spring of 1972 a University of
Virginia mobile coronary care van was credited
with bringing critical therapy to a famous heart
attack victim— former U.S. President Lyndon B.
Johnson. (See Paramedical Personnel, below.)

In their efforts to keep healthy and discover more
about illness, Americans were spending $75 billion
each year— 7.4% of the nation’s gross national
product. Predictably, the expenditure seemed to
have little relationship to the effect desired. While
the dollars for health had increased steadily, the
average citizen remained just as sick. Since 1959,
the National Center for Health Statistics reported,
average days of disability remained at 14-16 days
per year. That included 5-6 days annually at home,
sick in bed.

—Byron T. Scott

Alcoholism

Throughout history, man has used and abused the
mood-altering drug ethanol to celebrate his tri-
umphs and to soothe his frustrations. It has long
been known that many people, in all walks of life
and from many cultures, consume more alcoholic
beverages than is good for their health and well-
being and for the well-being of those around them.
Only recently, however, have scientific and humane
measures replaced moralism and punishment as
methods of dealing with the problem drinker.

The past five years have witnessed a deepened
awareness and understanding of the problems of
alcohol abuse and alcoholism. Instead of being
relegated to the category of willful misconduct or
bad behavior, alcoholism has been recognized as
a medical problem, a complex disorder with physi-
cal, social, behavioral, and psychiatric aspects.
The chronic excessive drinker has come to be re-
garded with compassion rather than condemna-
tion, as the helpless victim of an illness rather than
the deliberate perpetrator of a criminal or moral
offense.

Alcohol affects each person differently, and there
are almost as many definitions of alcohol abuse
and alcoholism as there are brands of whiskey,
wine, and beer. In our society, most drinkers keep

275

i.'edicine

their consumption of alcohol within socially accep-
table and harmless bounds-limited to amounts
ihey can readily handle. Drinking becomes a prob-
lem when the use of alcohol causes physical,
psychological, or social difficulties to the drinker
or lO society'. Alcohol is being abused when it
eads to recurrent episodes of intoxication or heaw
drinking that impair health, or when it is con-
sistently used as a mechanism for coping with
personal problems, to a point where it seriously
interferes vrith an individual’s effectiveness on the

job. at home, in the community', or behind the
vrheel of a car.

A new force in the war on alcoholism. During
the year a dramatic organizational change took
p ace in the effort to combat alcohol abuse and
alcoholism m the United Stales. Massive federal
mteu'ention in this previously neglected area of-
iicially began m December 1970, v.-hen the Com-
prehensive Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Preven-
lon ireatment and Rehabilitation Act of 1970
(^Public Law 91-616) was passed unanimously by
Congress and signed into law by
Pres. Richard Nixon. One of the most important
p eces of legislation ever enacted in the field of
alcoholism. Public Law 91-616 established the

fNl^AI Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism

(M^) to serve as the federal government’s prin-
programs and activities.
Working closely with state and local govern-
voluntary agencies (such as the
onal Council on Alcoholism and Alcoholics
Anonymous), and agencies involved in traffic

Of Transportafio^^
nani^ Council, and insurance corn-

research 2 b^°ad range of

needs of Programs to meet the total

needs of alcoholics and their families on the corn-

million oT^*' P''°ioct grants totaled S300

S haS Z Jr3

inception its

NIAAA had two main overall goals: to assist in

taho^s^r^iceTavanSJ!' at'SJ
andthelonger-ran^bie^irm^*^^^^

o, developing effective methods of preTenS

producro?a"co‘rnf ^’'^oholism is the

psychological, and sL'aTSom
understanding of its causae „ , ’ ^proved

range of research. With increased funds made
available by NIAAA grants, many highly competent
researchers from a variety of disciplines became
involved for the first time in research studies on
alcohol problems. These studies v/ere beino con-
ducted at universities and medical centers located
in geographic areas vrith a high incidence of al-
coholism.

One cause of death among alcoholics is cirrhosis
of the liver, and investigation into alcohol-related
liver disease v/as given high priority'. Attention
WeS also focused on other serious ccmplit^-
tions of alcoholism, including pancreatitis. Gas-
tritis, and vrithdravi'al reactions. Another im-
portant research goal v.'as to find wzys of speedino
the clearance of alcohol from the system. One
study showed that alcohol can be removed rapidly
from the bloodstream through hemodialysis (blood
purification through an artificial kidney). While
not currently practical for prolonged treatment
this technique had significant implications for the
management of life-threatening intoxications.

In order to match specific treatment methods to
particular patients, studies vrere conducted to
differentiate beh’/een subtypes of alcoholic per-
sons. One study identified "essential" and "re-
active ’ ty'pes of alcoholic persons, while another
categorized four subty'pes based on the relation-
ship beU'i’een social factors and the indiwdual.
As subtypes of alcoholic individuals vrere identi-

by CHd-1 D?>’ ■? !97D 7^9 !*>=-

'*r// bB clad to listen to your troubles — )'BS.

But, firsts hsvs you severest your connections vntb
other bsrtenbers to v/henj you’ve been re^slino the'
in the pesf^'"

276

Medicine

tied and specific treatments devised for each
group, a higher success rate could be expected.

New treatments would remain ineffective, how-
ever, as long as relatively few physicians and other
health personnel were sufficiently trained and ex-
perienced to deal with the complex problems of
alcohol abuse and alcoholism. To meet this need,
programs were initiated during the year for the
inclusion of training in alcohol problems in the
curricula of schools of medicine, social work,
nursing, public health, psychiatry, and psychology.
Other programs in progress included those aimed
at development of specialists to assume leadership
roles in training, research, education, and adminis-
tration; training for private practitioners and hos-
pital staff; and the preparation of counselors to
function in both clinical and coordinating roles.

Special programs. NIAAA’s formula grant pro-
gram, the first of its kind to deal with this problem,
enabled states to develop comprehensive plans
covering all segments of alcohol abuse and al-
coholism. Such programs made it possible to
involve a wide variety of groups, including pri-
vate citizens, voluntary agencies, medical pro-
fessionals, health care and social welfare agencies,
and court and enforcement personnel.

NIAAA community assistance programs provided
aid in the development of comprehensive com-
munity services to meet the needs of alcoholics
and their families, to coordinate these services,
and assure their continuity. Prior to the creation

Morsholl SovicJc

A Milwaukee, Wis., bartender listens to a customer's
problems alter completing an experimental course
in elementary counseling skills sponsored by the local
mental health association.

of these programs, such comprehensive services
were largely nonexistent. Most communities did
have a core of medical and social services, how-
ever, and the comprehensive structures were being
built around these existing services. A growing
number of community alcoholic treatment centers
were being established. Staff was being recruited
not only from the ranks of professional health and
social workers but from among recovered alco-
holics as well.

NIAAA was also collaborating with other federal
agencies, state and local governments, and private
organizations in the development of programs tar-
geted at special population groups. One of the
most important was a joint effort with the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the De-
partment of Transportation aimed at reducing the
number of deaths and injuries caused by drunken
drivers. This program included a broad public
information and education campaign on the dan-
gers of mixing drinking and driving. Special dem-
onstration projects enabled communities to show
the appropriateness and effectiveness of providing
a public health service for problem drinkers, rather
than running them through the revolving door of
arrest, fine, loss of driver’s license, and jail.

The public inebriate— the chronic drunkenness
offender or Skid Row derelict— represents only
about 5% of the alcoholic population but accounts
for 40% of all arrests for nontraffic offenses.
During the year the NIAAA, in cooperation with
mental health centers, law enforcement agencies,
and other organizations, sought to find more ef-
fective and practical alternatives to the present
costly and inefficient system of handling these
offenders. Several states initiated legislation to
remove public intoxication from the criminal
statutes and define it as a health problem. Further
positive developments in this direction were ex-
pected in the near future.

Another collaborative effort was under way on
behalf of employed alcoholics, who were estimated
to comprise about 5% of the U.S. work force. Based
on the experience of industries that had estab-
lished programs to help these individuals, more
than half of alcoholic employees can be rehabili-
tated. During 1971 the NIAAA, as required by Public
Law 91-616, assisted the Civil Service Commission
in developing guidelines for the implementation
of alcoholism programs in all federal agencies
and was fostering similar programs in state and
local governments and in industry.

To help meet the needs of the American Indian
population, which is troubled by severe problems
associated with alcohol abuse, NIAAA inaugurated
a collaborative program with the Indian Health
Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and other

277

Medicine

concerned agencies. Twelve treatment and re-
habilitation service projects designed and de-
veloped by Indians for their people were estab-
lished during the year.

Prevention and education. An illness is never
eradicated by treating only the casualties. To be
effective, any public health endeavor must also
be aimed at prevention. Accordingly, high priority
has been placed on public education as a method
of reducing and preventing alcohol problems.

The public information and education campaign,
conducted through television, radio, the press,
and special publications, has several objectives:
to develop public recognition of alcoholism as a
treatable disease: to encourage the health-care
system to regard alcoholism as a medical-social-
behavioral problem and to treat the alcoholic
patient with the same attention and consideration
as any other patient: to inform the public of the
properties of alcohol, its effects on the body and
on behavior, and its potential for harm: and to
produce a new environment concerning the use
and misuses of alcoholic beverages, with an even-
tual reduction in the rate of drunkenness, problem
drinking, and alcoholism. No person is asked to
abstain from drinking. Rather, the use or non-
use of alcoholic beverages is regarded as a per-
sonal decision to be made by each individual.

A worldwide problem. Outside the United States
alcohol abuse and alcoholism were also being
recognized as medical rather than legal problems.
After two decades of attempting to enforce anti-
liquor laws, the Indian government was being
forced to recognize that a disease cannot be
banned, and that the attempt to do so has resulted
in a considerable loss of revenue while encourag-
ing bootlegging, smuggling, and illicit distillation.
Surveys in Great Britain and Western Europe re-
vealed a substantial increase in the consumption

of alcoholic beverages, particularly among the
young. Yugoslavia, Poland, Hungary, and other
countries of Eastern Europe were mounting in-
tensive efforts to counteract the growing alcohol
abuse problem.

On the international level, the first World Con-
gress on the Prevention of Alcoholism was held
in Kabul, Afg., in August 1972. It was followed by
another international conference on the increasing
problem of alcohol abuse held in Amsterdam,
Neth., in September.

Future developments. The past year was largely
one of planning and organization. The implementa-
tion and broadening of the programs described
above would be the work of the months and years
ahead. Like most legislation. Public Law 91-616
provided a framework for action. Filling in that
framework would make a significant contribution
to the needs of alcoholic people and to the goal of
preventing and controlling alcoholism.

In addition to the benefits to be derived from
Public Law 91-616, a uniform law on public in-
toxication, developed by the Commissioners, on
Uniform State Lasvs, was awaiting enactment by
the states. The thrust of the law would be to move
public intoxication out of the criminal area and into
the health care service area where it belongs.

NIAAA’s new National Clearinghouse on Alco-
holic Information was expected to be in operation
shortly. This was to be the mechanism for develop-
ing and distributing information on all aspects of
the use and misuse of alcohol. In addition, the
clearinghouse would distribute proceedings of
research workshops and symposia, annotated bib-
liographies of treatment and rehabilitation litera-
ture, guides to federal assistance programs in the
area of alcoholism, directories of alcoholic treat-
ment programs, and fact sheets on alcoholism.

— Morris E. Chafetz

l.tuscle tissue (left) taken from a subject who consumed 225 gm of ethanof daily lor four weeks reveals
extensive damage, including swollen interfibrillar spaces clogged with glycogen and lipid droplets-
A second specimen (right) taken six months later shows the muscle has returned to normal.

£>-- £.— rfb -V V.a,— e* : --f

Medicine

Alcoholism today

The first annual report on alcohol and health, pre-
pared by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism, was the most comprehensive
report ever published on the subject. It gave ample
proof that alcohol is the most abused drug in the
United States today. Among the principal findings
of the report:

Nine million Americans are alcohol abusers and
alcoholics. This constitutes about 5% of the adult
population and almost 10% of the nation’s work
force.

Alcohol plays a major role in half the highway
fatalities in the U.S., costing thousands of lives
each year.

Alcohol abuse and alcoholism drain the econ-
omy of an estimated S15 billion annually.

Public intoxication alone accounts for one-third
of all reported arrests.

Among American Indians, alcoholism is at an
epidemic level; the rate is at least 10%, or twice
as high as the national average.

Alcoholism is not a crime but an illness that re-
quires rehabilitation through a broad range of
health and social services tailored to the individual
case.

Present programs dealing with alcohol abuse
and alcoholism are accorded a low priority and
are unrelated to most of the health and social
resources within communities. What community
services are available are frequently fragmented
and fail to take into account changing life-styles
or the unique characteristics of various population
groups.

Establishment of modern public-health-oriented
facilities to deal with intoxicated persons will
free law enforcement agencies from being over-
burdened with a great many ill people.

The criminal law is not an appropriate device for
preventing or controlling the health problems
brought on by alcoholism. To deal with alcoholic
persons as criminals because they appear in public
when intoxicated is unproductive and wasteful of
human resources.

Death and dying

In recent months a rash of articles in major news-
papers and national magazines dealt with aspects
of death and dying that had rarely been written
about before. Should a patient dying of widespread
cancer be kept going by artificial means only to die
several times over and in great discomfort? Should
a retarded infant with intestinal obstruction have
his life saved surgically only to spend it in a state
institution, unproductive and at public expense?
Such questions were surfacing more and more fre-

quently and attracting wide public attention. At
the opening of the John F. Kennedy Center for the
Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., in October
1971, a capacity audience of professional and lay
people listened to panels debating these and re-
lated ethical issues for two days at the Interna-
tional Symposium on Human Rights, Retardation,
and Research.

Several centers for the study of ethical problems
in medicine had been established recently in the
U.S., notably the Institute of Society, Ethics, and
the Life Sciences at Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y.,
and the Kennedy Center for Bio-ethics at George-
town University, Washington, D.C. Programs
under government or foundation support were

The growing percentage of people over the age of 65
presents a set of unique problems for today’s physician.
Social attitudes toward the elderly and the lack
of training in geriatrics and gerontology often hinder
decisions regarding the proper care of the aged.

Joe Boker.MEDlCAL WORLD NEWS

.'/sdicine

exploring these and related problems at Cornell,
tne Universih' of Virginia. Stanford, Yale. Harvard!
Case Western Resen'e. the Hersney Medical
Center of Pennsylvania State Unive.rsih'. and the
University of Washington, among others.

Medical advances. Until the past few decades
the powers provided by medical science to prevent
death were relatively feeble. That is. people lived
and died largely independently of major inter-
vention. V/hen the time came, the heart stopped, as
did breathing, and that was death. But now the hu-
m.an organism can be kept going despite cessation
of normal brain, heart, respiratori', or kidney func-
tion, and other procedures for replacing lung and
liver function by artificial means v.’ere in the experi-
•menta! phase. Several hundred bodies were being
maintained at the temperature of liquid nitrogen
against the day when medical science will have dis-
covered enough nev.' information to revive them
and patch them up.

I hanks to these rapidly developing technolooies.
eying is no longer a simple matter. Sharp contro-
versy exists as to the use of these powerful tools.
What are the proper procedures for deciding who
shall be kept alive and who shall be allowed to die"?
When ,s a person dead? Certainly not when his
heart stops; it can often be started again and
kept going by an electrical pacer. Is he dead v.'h=n
his brain has irreversibly ceased to function, even
though his vital organs otherwise continue with or
without assistance? This was spoken of as "brain
death," and many felt that it v.'as a more reason-
able criterion of death than failure of circulation
and respiration, arguing that a human body with-
out a brain, and hence no mind or sensibilities,
IS no longer a human being. But then the Question
arises; Must the entire brain cease permanently
to function or is the loss of higher cerebral func-
ion, I at part responsible for conscious thouohl
and feelings, sufficient? Is an individual whose
Dwer brain centers continue to keep the body
going, but whose mind is irretrievably cone no
^nger a human being? Is he essentially dead?
Or should he be allowed to die and if so how’ By
'vhose decision? ■’

questions faeino

deb=.ed. ihey were raised most urgently by Ih^

who watched

he dea.h o. a relative by the iono-drawn-out and

cino-l'n "^“dem medi

venouslv withT'^'"* ='^5‘ti'Olics. fed infra-

2S0

difficult business of considering the cualib’ cf
life as well as its duration and of accepting the re-
sponsibility for helping patients to die vrith as
much dignity and peace as possible at the richl
time. .°ublic sentiment seemed to beswincinc this
way, as judged by the recent press and the recent
growth of interest in euthanasia.

Euthanasia and the living will. Euthanasia de-
rived irom the Greek, meaning "a good death,"
was once an accepted part of many societies. Fcr
example, Eskimos who simply could not sunTve
otherwise let disabled old people die as pain-
lessly as possible when the rations got short
Modern Western societies, on the other hand,
generally were strongly oriented toward the pro-
tection of individual life at all costs, ^pecielly
lavoring the weak and helpless. Nevertheless, the
withholding of extraordinaiy' measures to pro'ono
life was widely condoned in privale. and most
physicians agreed that vrhen the famity consented
and the patient was clearly demonstrated to be
beyond salvage, resuscitative measures were not
required at the end.

Passive, or negative, euthanasia was the next
step; that is, the withholding of ordinaiy life-
preserving measures in the hope of shortening
painful or useless life indirectly. This also v.as
practiced by many phjaicians when, in their judg-
ment. it was the proper and humane course of
action. Of a group of professors of medicine re-
cently sun'eyed, 87?i favored negative euthanasia.

Actwe, or positive, euthanasia that is. the taking
of definite measures to terminate or shorten life,
is not generally condoned in Western society at
present. Sir George Pickering, in his address at the
opening of the new medical school in Nottingham.
Eng., expressed the prei'ailing opinion about
euthanasia among British physicians when he said,

"1 reject euthanasia — killing people is not whet
doctors should, or could, do." At the same time,
he strongly endorsed letting old people die with
dignity and not trying to prolong the lives of "old
men and v.’omen stuffed with other people's wscera
but with their own senile brains." Various groups,
such as some members cf the Euthanasia Society,
argued that the.'e was little difference ethically
between active and passive euthanasia once it
was decided that it would be best for a patie.nt net
to go on Ih'ing. In Ihesuivey just mentioned, almost
half of the students of medicine and nursing cues-
tioned favored positive euthanasia but this was
true cf only tSri of the professors cf medic’ne.
This perhaps indicated a trend in favor ameng t.he
young, which society as a vrhole micht well em-
brace in the future.

the Euthenasia Educational Fund, whose mem-
bership had crov.-n from 600 persons i.n t£69 to

Though young physicians
can learn much

from treating the elderly, often
the lack of time and patience
impels them to concentrate their
efforts on younger patients,
who respond quickly and provide
a greater and more immediate
sense of achievement.

over 5,000 in 1972, had received more than 65,000
requests for living wills, documents designed to
help physicians and families make decisions about
life-prolonging measures in terminal illnesses
v/here the patient may be unable to communicate
his wishes. A person executing a living will indi-
cates in part that "I do not fear death as much as I
fearthe indignity of deterioration, dependency, and
hopeless pain.” The signer asks that when any of
these conditions are present he be allov/ed to die
"in dignity.” It was generally conceded that these
documents did not bind the physician or the family
legally. They did, however, help the consciences of
both when the terminal patient was comatose or
non compos mentis.

The legal and medical professions were still
quite uncertain as to their respective roles in mak-
ing the necessary decisions. How much should be
left to the doctor, the doctor and the family, a com-
mittee of doctors, a committee with lay members,
or the courts? Arguments were advanced for all of
these, but in general the physician still took the
major responsibility, in consultation with the family
v/hen possible.

Special problems arose in relation to organ
transplantation. This new and very powerful tech-
nology depended on the recovery of viable organs
from a donor as soon as possible after death, e
kidneys of a person who is dead by any of the usua
criteria remain viable for a limited time and can be
transferred to a patient needing a transplant, but
the shorter the time interval the better the chances

for success. Obviously, a physician caring for both
the donor and the recipient would be in a position
of potential conflict over the interests of his two
patients. It was, therefore, generally agreed that
a different physician or group should be respon-
sible for the donor’s care and make decisions quite
independent of the needs and wishes of the re-
cipient and his physicians. Also, these decisions
were generally made by more than one physician.

Legal aspects. Recognizing the need for
changes in statutes relating to death, in 1971 the
state of Kansas enacted the first law in the U.S.
that attempted to redefine death and to take into
account problems of organ transplantation. It
read in part: ”A person will be considered med-
ically and legally dead if, in the opinion of a physi-
cian, based on ordinary standards of medical
practice, there is the absence of spontaneous
brain function; and . . . [that if] during reasonable
attempts to either maintain or restore spontaneous
circulatory or respiratory function in the absence of
aforesaid brain function, it appears that further
attempts at resuscitation or supportive mainte-
nance will not succeed, death will have occurred
at the time v/hen these conditions first coincide.
Death is to be pronounced before artificial means
of supporting respiratory and circulatory function
are terminated and before any vital organ is re-
moved for purpose of transplantation.”

This statute had a mixed reception in both medi-
cal and legal circles. Some greeted it as an im-
portant advance while others deplored it as both

281

Medicine

unnecessary and dangerous. In these times of
rapidly changing technology, no consensus had
developed in the medical world as to the criteria
of death or its precise time. In an article in Science
Robert Morison argued persuasively that death is a
process and not an event; in which case, any at-
tempt to fix an exact moment of death is neces-
sarily arbitrary. In the same issue, Leon Kass
vigorously defended the classical view that death
must be defined and timed precisely as an event.

The courts in several cases upheld the right of an
individual to refuse life-prolonging treatment.
Thus, the right to be allowed to die had been estab-
lished under some circumstances, especially, but
not exclusively, where religious convictions were
involved. On the other hand, other courts had held
the reverse, and life saving measures were ordered
despite opposition by a patient's family. As of 1972
there had not been enough cases in the courts to
establish legal precedents.

Thanatology: the care of the dying. In addition
to the medical and legal aspects of the care of the
dying patient, there are psychological factors of
great importance. These were well known to the
old-fashioned family doctor who had little but com-
fort to offer his terminal patient. He usually pre-
sided over death in the home, among the patient’s
family, in circumstances favorable to human con-
tact and psychological support. This pattern of
dying now tended to give way, especially in the
U.S., to a more common one of death in the hospi-
tal. There, In addition to the indignities associated
with overenthusiastic prolongation of life, the
patient may find himself lonely and virtually aban-
doned as the end draws near. The team of busy
physicians and nurses who visited regularly and
were solicitous and attentive early in the terminal
Illness find it more difficult to face the patient. Too
rarely are they willing or able to answer the ques-

him un-

aerstand and accept his impending demise with
equanimity and with a hand to hold.

mmfJnd fortunately, becoming

? more concerned about reintroducing the

Th^Snr modern, scientific medicine.

The Society for Medicine and Human Values with

Hu'^^L N ational Endowment for the
Humanities, held a national meeting at Williams-
rg a., m April 1972 where the role of the hu-
manities in medical education was the central
theme. In June 1972 another national conference
was convened in Tarrytown, N.Y., by the Hastinos

to evaluate the teaching of medical ethics in the
nation s medical schools. This center was also

oSis:ue:in^'rr°^^^ info«n^on

ssues in the life sciences and was publish-

ing periodically its own ongoing research into the
ethical, social, and legal problems of death and
dying. Finally, Robert H. Williams of the University
of Washington was engaged in editing discussions
on death and dying by a number of distinguished
authors.

—Thomas H. Hunter

Dentistry

For decades the dental profession has advocated
that teeth can last a lifetime through proper care.
In early 1972 this idea was markedly advanced as
dentistry began to move on many fronts toward
stepping up the prevention of oral disease. The
American Dental Association pointed out that
the "profession now has the scientific knowl-
edge to recognize and control dental disease and
the technical ability to correct its harmful effects.”
A special ADA coordinating committee on preven-
tive dentistry had the task of studying ways of im-
plementing a large-scale prevention program that
would include utilization of all research achieve-
ments and massive public dental education pro-
grams.

Control of dental plaque. Dental scientists long
recognized dental plaque as a major culprit in
the development of tooth decay and periodontal
disease. The gummy masses of microorganisms
develop constantly in the mouth; toothbrushing
alone will not remove them. Effective plaque con-
trol, according to studies at the National Institute
of Dental Research (NIDR), Bethesda, Md., can
only be achieved through a variety of steps includ-
ing proper eating habits, use of dental floss or
tape to remove plaque and food debris from spaces
between the teeth, use of water sprays and jets,
use of solutions to identify areas where plaque
is most likely to persist, and most of all, regular
dental examinations.

Tooth decay research. Scientists at NIDR and
at other research centers were studying the de-
velopment of more effective and practical tech-
niques for destroying existing plaque and block-
ing its further formation, possibly through the
use of enzymes and chemicals. A number of anti-
bacterial agents were discovered to be highly
effective but had not been sufficiently tested for
human use.

More progress .was reported with studies on
adhesive sealants that are painted on the occlusal
(biting) surfaces of teeth to seal off areas particu-
larly susceptible to decay. The sealants could not
be applied to the sides of the teeth and therefore
would not protect against smooth-surface or gum-
line cavities. The ADA announced provisional
recognition of one sealant material as an agent

282

Medicine

Courtesy, Dr Reidar F. Sognnaes, University of Colifornia at Los Angeles

' . ■ - _ . ,'•••' "'•■•' ’ /v— ■» *<•

j. ■=■ ■> •>■•■;

SiS‘

*•• ■^ 5 '—

Prec/se s///cone impressions of living tissue reveal islands oi cancerous growth next to normal mouth
tissue (leit) and a malignant growth under an ill-fitting denture (right) when magnified under a scanning
electron microscope. The technique can be used to replicate any easily accessible tissue.

capable of “restoring or sealing off anatomically
deficient regions of the tooth," but cautioned
that this recognition in no way pertained to any
possible decay-preventing characteristics of the
product.

Emotional stress and gum disease. Unusual
emotional and physical stress may be the cause of
a type of periodontal disease in teenagers and
young adults known as pericoronitis (an inflam-
mation of the gum tissues surrounding the crowns
of partially erupted teeth). In a study conducted at
the University of Kentucky dental school, more
than 70% of 136 patients suffering from the dis-
order were under severe emotional or physical
pressures. Unerupted third molars or wisdom teeth
were most commonly affected. Fatigue, financial
worries, and, in women, menstruation were men-
tioned among major causative factors.

Patients suffering from advanced periodontal
disease frequently incur bone loss in the jaw. To
correct this, a U.S. Army dentist, Robert G. Schall-
horn, developed a unique surgical technique in
which he implanted bone grafts from the patients
hip in the defective areas of the jaw.

Oral cancer prevention. Smoking was linked
to the development of oral cancer and, according
to University of California at San Francisco dental
scientist Sol Silverman, Jr., even if an oral cancer
patient quit smoking he might still develop a
second oral malignancy. Such patients, howeve^
might have a better chance of preventing a second
malignancy than those continuing to smoke.

At the University of California at Los Angeles,

Reidar F. Sognnaes developed an elastic siiicone
process for making living tissue impressions
precise enough to be magnified thousands of
times under the powerful scanning electron
microscope (SEM), thus helping to detect early
oral cancer. The technique provided nondestruc-
tive and painless micro-replication of all easily
accessible hard and soft tissues, such as those
in the mouth. Malignant cancer growths bulgirig
up next to normal tissue were clearly visible in
micro-replicas examined under the SEM. Small
silicone discs carrying the fluid impression mix-
ture are placed on the surface being examined.
In a few minutes the mixture hardens and the
replica can then be examined directly or be con-
verted to a positive replica made of a harder resin
material. The replica is also coated with a thin
film of evaporated gold or other material to make
the surface conductive to the beam of the SEM.

—Lou Joseph

Paramedical personnel

in 1900 the doctor’s chief help in caring for the
sick came from the patient’s family, and most
medical services were rendered in the home. At
that time there was approximately one nonphysi-
cian health worker for every doctor in the United
States.

In 1972 almost all medical services were per-
formed in offices, clinics, and hospitals, and there
were an estimated 12 nonphysician workers for
every doctor, a ratio that continues to rise annu-

283

Medicine

ally. Of these workers, about half were in nursing
and its related professions: about 7% worked as
secretaries, receptionists, and in similar positions;
slightly more than 6% were in dentistry and its re-
lated fields: and slightly less than 6% were various
types of environmental control workers. Pharma-
cists and their helpers, clinical laboratory techni-
cians, physical therapists, various basic scientists,
dieticians, and administrators formed the re-
mainder of this large segment of the U.S. work
force.

How and for what reason have these professions
evolved? Some resulted from the subdivision of al-
ready existing professions. Two examples are X-ray
technology and laboratory technology. At one time
a doctor did his own X rays (radiographs) and his
own laboratory work. In the course of time, it be-
came apparent that these tasks could be taught to
nonphysician helpers, and that this delegation
of work was more efficient. At first, doctors trained
their own helpers, but soon schools were created
for the purpose.

Other professions emerged in response to new
needs. Physical therapy arose out of a post-World
War I need for professional persons to care for
disabled veterans. Radiation safety, a relatively
new field, grew from a need for persons to set up
testing and surveillance programs to ensure the
safety of patients and workers in hospital radio-
graphic units. These skills were never possessed

by more than a very few doctors, and were there-
fore the basis for truly new professions.

Impetus for this continuing creation of more and
more medical professions came from the in-
creasing specialization and institutionalization of
medical care. Because of the rapid increase in
knowledge and the parallel development of new
technical capabilities, new skills became neces-
sary. An example is kidney transplantation. This
demands a team to operate the artificial kidney
machine while the patient awaits a transplant: an
immunologist to determine the best match of
donor, kidney to recipient patient; and, finally, a
team that receives the donor kidney, preserves it,
and prepares it for the procedure. All this is in
addition to the surgeon who actually performs the
transplant, along with his own team of helpers.

The generalist helper. While these develop-
ments have created a demand for more "specialty”
workers in the hospital setting, many segments of
the population have not been receiving adequate
care for less sophisticated but far more common
medical problems, and some members of society
have practically no access to medical care. As the
magnitude of this problem became apparent to the
public and to medical, nursing, and other health
professionals, there was a corresponding interest
in the creation of still other categories of health
workers to deliver needed services to these under-
served groups.

Paramedical students learn laboratory procedures (left) and practice artificial respiration (right)

during the course of a six-month training program at the University of New Mexico. The goal

of the program is to improve the quality of health care in rural counties, many of which have no doctors.

A JH — -r: — in — —

Morgfe A'cCuffy, of

Medicine

Joe Btjier, MEDICAL WORLD NEWS

Operating room nurses at
Monmouth Medical Center in
Long Branch, N.J., have become
better informed about the
total patient-care program
through a series of regular
conferences with physicians
and post-operative
patients. Many nurses had
expressed a feeling of isolation
from their patients because of
the technological orientation
of surgical procedures and the
lack of post-operative contact.

The year 1971 was characterized by the emer-
gence of physician's assistants, nurse practi-
tioners, and other "generalist” assistants as ac-
cepted members of the health care team. Although
these groups had been on the scene for five or six
years, there had been considerable debate regard-
ing their capabilities and, in some cases, serious
controversy. During 1971 several developments all
but assured the permanence of these new profes-
sions. There was a sharp increase in the number
of operational training programs. A number of
states passed laws recognizing these assistants
and providing a legal framework for their activities.
The American Medical Association (AMA) adopted
a set of minimal educational standards for ap-
proved training programs for “assistants to the
primary care physician” (as opposed to assistants
to various medical specialists). The federal govern-
ment also recognized the potential importance
of such programs, and the creation of new pro-
grams v/as designated in the president s health
care message as an area for special emphasis.

These new professionals came from various
backgrounds. Physician’s assistants usually had
previous experience as military corpsmen, but an
increasing number were entering the profession
from nonmilitary backgrounds. Most were trained
in two-year programs in v/hich about half of t e
curriculum was classroom work, the other ha
practical work under physician direction. The
nurse practitioner v/as usually a registered nurse

who had had six months to a year of added train-
ing. The "Medex” was the product of a training
program that accepted trainees with previous mili-
tary or civilian experience and then provided 3
months of intensive instruction followed by 12
months of on-the-job training in a doctor’s office.

Relatively few representatives of these new pro-
fessional groups had been integrated into actual
work settings in 1971. According to an AMA survey
in October 1971, 96 physician’s assistants had
graduated (74 from the Duke University program)
and Medex programs had graduated 56 persons
(22 from the University of Alabama, 19 from the
University of North Dakota, and 15 from the Univer-
sity of Washington.)

Licensing and certification. These developments
highlighted some major problems associated with
licensure, certification, and accreditation. The
higher levels of medical and related professions
are generally licensed by individual states: each
state has passed laws defining the role of each pro-
fession, setting educational and ethical standards
for entry into the profession, and establishing an
examination to test skills and knowledge. Such
laws exist for doctors, dentists, and nurses, and
occasionally for other professionals as well. These
laws are designed to protect the public by ensur-
ing a minimum level of competence before entry
into practice.

Other health professionals are not licensed, but
are certified by a given training program as having

285

Michael Mauney, LIFE Magazine © Time Inc.

A nurse-midwife, an R.N. with specialized training
to help ease the nationwide doctor shortage,
by Kentucky’s Frontier Nursing Service presents
a newborn baby to its mother shortly after delivery.

completed a prescribed course of study. Some pro-
grams of this type are accredited by various profes-
sional bodies as being in conformity with estab-
hshed minimum standards. The AMA, for example
has set up criteria for a number of such programs
and accredits those that meet or exceed these
criteria. Most certification and accreditation pro-
grams, like licensure programs, are established
with quality control as the primary objective. How-
ever it is also recognized that such mechanisms
can become the means whereby a profession pro-
ects Its own interests by preventing competition.

In August 1971 the U.S. secretary of health edu-
cation. and welfare, Elliot L. Richardson an-
nounced the recommendations of a special com-
mittee appointed to study the problem. The states
were urged to observe a two-year moratorium on
'^Bislation creating new categories
of hea th-care personnel. The states were also
urged to expand existing health practice (licen-
ure) acts, granting broader delegational authority
nerinH® professionals. The two-year

anrnroUK equivalency

bat\^ examinations for use on a national

use of community health aides, particularlv in
lovv-income. medically deprived areas. These a e
generally residents of the area fn h,. !

SSHSSrisi

286

frequently their employment was opposed or re-
ceived with misgivings by conventional health-
care personnel.

In almost all areas where they have been em-
ployed, these workers have more than met expec-
tations. An often encountered comment is that they
were able to communicate with residents of the
areas where they work when regular professionals
could not. Generally, they have been trained in
short courses of several weeks' duration, followed
by on-the-job supplementation of training. Their
jobs vary considerably. Some are trained to edu-
cate area residents regarding immunizations and
regular health care. Others assist in family planning
and in drug abuse programs. Still others assist in
direct medical services. In all cases, the empathy,
understanding of problems, and ability to com-
municate have proved highly useful and unique
assets, far outweighing the lack of formal in-
struction.

Further developments. Federal support for
various paramedical programs received a great
boost in 1971 in the form of the Comprehensive
Health Manpower Training Act. This act provides
added support for training institutions, through
special improvement grants and through incentive
grants for programs producing physician’s assis-
tants and nurse practitioners.

There have aiso been a number of studies aimed
at measuring the improvement in services asso-
ciated with use of physician’s assistants and nurse
practitioners. Reports suggest that the use of a
physician’s assistant augments the volume of
medical services produced by 50 to 70%. Analyses
of the pediatric nurse practitioner indicate that
such a person can effectively handle 80% of the
cases once seen by the pediatrician.

Pharmacy faced a number of issues during the
year, most of which remained unresolved. The
primary issue was should the pharmacist remain
as a dispenser of drugs, or should he redefine his
role, assuming a larger responsibility in health
care? Most observers agreed that the present edu-
cational base of the pharmacist should enable him
to assume a broader set of functions than merely
operating a retail drugstore. One possibility was
that he could function within the hospital as an
expert on drugs— in charge of dispensing drugs,
consulting with doctors on the choice of drugs,
and instructing patients regarding them. Another
was that he could serve as a primary contact with
the patient in areas with a shortage of doctors.

In many cases, the latter function would require
changes in state laws. It was noteworthy that those
who favored changing the role of the pharmacist
usually favored the training of a pharmacist’s
assistant to dispense drugs under his supervision.

Medicine

Within the nursing profession, a considerable
amount of energy was being expended on dis-
cussion of the proper stance of nursing vis-a-vis
the physician’s assistant. Many nurses felt that
widespread assumption of such a role by nurses
would negate the gains that had been fought for
during the past 20 or 30 years in obtaining recog-
nition of nursing as an independent profession.
Others believed that a professional colleague-
ship with the doctor in the care of patients is a
satisfying role, in no way threatening to the pro-
fessional stature of the nurse. The more youthful
members of the profession seemed much more
inclined toward the latter view.

— E. Harvey Estes

Psychiatry

During the past year, researchers in the field of
psychiatry made a number of significant dis-
coveries. Work was done on the genesis and treat-
ment of such diverse illnesses as schizophrenia,
temporal lobe epilepsy, and alcoholism, as well
as manic-depressive psychosis.

Depression. Lithium carbonate, a drug that had
been reported to be effective in the management of

manic-depressive psychosis in 1943, was finally
cleared by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
for use with manic patients. Numerous papers pub-
lished during the year attested to the therapeutic
usefulness of this compound in the alleviation of
mania or hypomania. In addition, recent reports
from England and Scandinavia indicated that it
may be effective in the treatment of bipolar depres-
sion.

Studies by the Scandinavian researcher K.
Leonhard indicated that there are two types of
depressive illness. One, referred to as unipolar,
occurs in patients without any history of a manic
attack. The other type, which Leonhard labels
bipolar, occurs in patients who have had mania
in the past. R. Fieve at Columbia University showed
that lithium carbonate is effective in alleviating the
symptoms of depression in patients with bipolar
illness. Further, lithium carbonate seems to be
associated with a decrease in the frequency- of
recurrent attacks. Lithium does not appear to be
effective in the treatment of unipolar depression,
however.

This finding supports the concept that patients
with bipolar illness may suffer from some form of
biochemical abnormality that is corrected by the

Actors stage "The Concept," a psychodrama on drug abuse, for the personnel of a New York company.
Large corporations throughout the U.S. are discovering many drug users among their employees
and are sponsoring several types of programs to combat the problem.

Msdicine

administration of lithium carbonate. Further evi-
dence is provided by genetic studies. Several re-
searchers have noted that a large number of bi-
polar patients have bipolar parents. George
Vv'inokur at the University of Iowa showed that, in
two families under study, family members who
were color-blind were also bipolar patients, in-
dicating a genetic linkage between colorblindness
and bipolar depression.

Schizophrenia. Whether environment or genetic
makeup is related to the development of schizo-
phrenia has long been the subject of debate. D.
Rosenthal at the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH), in reviewing case records of the
offspring of schizophrenics who were put up for
adoption at birth, noted that even though these
patients had been adopted by nonschizophrenics,
roughly one third of them developed schizophrenia
in later life. However, a small number of adoptees

A methadone "disket," widely used in heroin addiction
therapy, begins to dissolve in water. Properly
prescribed and taken, methadone curtails an addict’s
craving for heroin and stabilizes his condition so that
rehabilitative measures have a chance to succeed.

from nonschizophrenic families who were raised
by schizophrenics also developed schizophrenia.
Rosenthal concluded that both genetic and en-
vironmental factors are important in the develop-
ment of the disease.

Chemotherapy continued to be the primary treat-
ment for schizophrenia. Chlorpromazine was
joined by haloperidol as an effective antipsychotic
agent. Studies by Larry Stein of Wyeth Labora-
tories, Radnor, Pa., indicated that the administra-
tion of chlorpromazine during the first few months
of schizophrenia may prevent the formation of an
irreversible brain lesion. Stein hypothesized that
schizophrenia in man can be explained on the
basis of the destruction of the pleasure center in
the septal region of the brain by the formation in
the brain of a toxin, 6-hydroxydopamine, which
has been shown to destroy selective areas of the
brains of rats. Stein identified a metabolite of 6-
hydroxydopamine exuded in the sweat of schizo-
phrenics. Since administration of chlorpromazine
to rats during the first six months of 6-hydroxydo-
pamine injections prevented the destruction of
brain centers, Stein believed that chlorpromazine
used sufficiently early in the treatment of the schiz-
ophrenic patient could arrest irreversible destruc-
tion of the brain’s pleasure center. His work had
yet to be confirmed, however.

Other researchers believed that the delusions
of schizophrenia are produced by a hallucinogen
manufactured by the human brain. Under the di-
rection of Julius Axelrod, researchers at NIMH
discovered that the human brain converts tryp-
tamine to n-methyl-tryptamine and di-methyl-
tryptamine. The latter compound is a hallucinogen,
raising the possibility that the delusions of a schiz-
ophrenic may be explained on the basis of genetic
predisposition to form di-methyl-tryptamine. It is
also possible that schizophrenic patients form the
compound when undergoing stressful situations.
Research was in progress to determine whether
schizophrenic patients do in fact synthesize di-
methyl-tryptamine in their brains.

Violent and aggressive behavior. Many patients
who experience episodes of violence and aggres-
sive behavior as a result of a disease known as
temporal lobe epilepsy can be treated with tran-
quilizers, psychic energizers, and antiseizure
drugs. In the past, if these compounds were unable
to control violent outbursts, such patients v/ere
subjected to the surgical removal of part of their
temporal lobe. This required quite a large incision,
the sacrifice of a large amount of brain cortex
that was not diseased, and the removal of a large
amount of skull bone.

V. H. Mark and F. R. Ervin of Harvard University
perfected a surgical technique in which tiny elec-

Medicine

Culver Pictures

An etching by William Hogarth,
published in 1735, depicts
Londoners amusedly watching
the cruel treatment of mental
patients in Bedlam. As recently
as January 1 972, cruelty to
patients in a British mental
hospital was the subject of an
official inquiry. A plan released
in 1972 by Britain’s Department
of Health and Social Security
proposed closing all the nation's
mental hospitals and replacing
them with small psychiatric units
in local hospitals and
outpatient care facilities.

trodes are implanted in the brain and used to de-
stroy those few brain cells that act abnormally
and that in the past have been associated with the
symptoms of seizure and violence. The thera-
peutic results in patients suffering from unilateral
or bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy have been ex-
cellent. It must be remembered, however, that this
procedure is applicable only to those violent pa-
tients whose behavior stems from temporal lobe
epilepsy. Mark and Ervin estimated that this dis-
order occurs in one out of ten people who exhibit
excessively violent behavior.

Community and social psychiatry. The state of
California closed three large state hospitals during
the year. This was done in response to the decreas-
ing patient population in these facilities, as well
as to the increased availability of community men-
tal health centers. Since chlorpromazine became
available for the treatment of mental illness in 1955,
the patient population in large state mental hos-
pitals has decreased steadily. At that time there
were more than 550,000 patients in state and
county mental hospitals: as of 1972 the number
had fallen to less than 400,000, despite the increase
in the population as a whole. The number of ad-
missions to state mental institutions rose during
this period, but - the patients were hospitalized
for a much shorter time.

Animal models of psychosis. One of the factors
that has prevented an early understanding of the
causes of mental illness has been the lack of an
animal model of any psychiatric disturbance.
Whereas the infectious diseases, cancer, and a

number of metabolic diseases affect animals as
they do man, the mental illnesses that afflict man
have appeared to lack counterparts in animals.

Working with rhesus monkeys, Harry Harlow
and William McKinney at the University of Wiscon-
sin developed an animal model of autistic behav-
ior, involving severe withdrawal and inability to re-
late. Animals were separated from their mothers
early in life and reared in isolation in large metal
chambers. Their behavior following confinement
in this chamber for two months or longer appeared
autistic— the animals had little interest in food or
sex, they were afraid of monkeys their own age,
and did not enter into the play activities that their
normal siblings enjoyed. Whether or not this be-
havioral state is related to schizophrenia or to any
other human psychosis was still in question. Two
forms of therapeutic intervention were success-
ful in reversing this autistic behavior. Observations
by the group in Wisconsin revealed that if one
of the autistic monkeys was placed in a cage with
another, younger monkey, this younger and more
socially adept "therapist" • monkey served to in-
crease the socialization of the autistic animal.
Over the course of several weeks the "therapist"
monkey was able to engage the autistic animal in
play with other animals, and after several months of
group interaction with the "therapist" monkey the
autistic animal seemed to be highly socialized
with respect to the other animals in the group
cage. The Wisconsin researchers also noted that
the administration of chlorpromazine reversed
some of the symptoms of the maternally deprived

289

Medicine

animals. Thus, both environmental and drug
treatments appeared to be effective.

Future developments. Rubidium carbonate
showed some promise as an antidepressant in
pilot studies under Fieve's direction at Columbia
University. It has been thought by many research-
ers that depressed patients may suffer from a func-
tional deficiency of norepinephrine in the brain.
Rubidium carbonate increases the rate of release
and uptake of norepinephrine in the brains of
rats and monkeys, and it has been hypothesized
that the compound may be effective in increas-
ing the functional availability' of norepinephrine
in the brains of depressed patients.

With the federal government placing great em-
phasis on the treatment of alcoholism and drug
abuse, it was not unlikely that major discoveries
would occur in this area in the near future. The
finding by E. P. Davis in Houston, Tex., that alcohol
may lead to the formation of a substance similar to
morphine stimulated research to discover whether
this morphine derivative is responsible for the ad-
dicting effects of alcohol. Several investigators
were attempting to isolate this morphine derivative
in the spinal fluid of alcoholics.

To date, methadone has proved to be the most
eftective compound in the treatment of heroin ad-
diction, but its effects are short-lived, requiring
frequent dosage. A possible replacement was
Q-acetyl-methadol, a methadone derivative, which
\vas shown to be longer lasting in its antinarcotic
effect than methadone. It is also more potent, and
therefore can be given in a smaller dose. Another
drug treatment was being developed by Sydney
Spector at the Roche Institute of Molecular
Biology, Nutley, N.J. He produced antibodies to
morphine and heroin in animals, and it was pos-
sible that the administration of these antibodies to
man would eliminate the narcotic effects of heroin.

Studies on the use of nondominant brain hem-
ispheres were expected to reveal some interesting
herapeutic results. This work, carried out under
^3llaway at the University of
California in San Francisco, focused on the train-

f to use their nondominant
hemisphere. The training involved a feedback
technique using electroencephalographic (EEG)
tracings taken from scalp electrodes, which were
displayed to the patient in a feedback loop. The
EEG reading enabled the patient to know when
he was using his dominant or nondominant hemi-
fpn Th ^ process. The possibility of

H, Keith H. Brodie

Venereal disease

In 1972, venereal diseases continued at pandemic
levels in the United States, as an estimated 80,000
new cases of infectious syphilis and 2.2 million new
cases of gonorrhea joined the carrier pool. Re-
ported congenital syphilis continued its rise from
300 cases in 1970 to 397 in 1971.

The incidence of venereal diseases in the U.S.
varies widely by region and age distribution. Not
surprisingly, the greatest incidence occurs in areas
of high population density and among the largest
age groups within a population. Thus, as the mean
age of population decreases, the incidence of
venereal disease among young people increases.

Regional variation is more complex: the national
rate of infection for gonorrhea is 285 per 100,000
population. Yet in fiscal 1970 {July 1, 1970, through
June 30. 1971) gonorrhea occurred at the rate of
2,486.7 per 100,000 in Atlanta, Ga.; 1,262.2 in Chi-
cago, ML; and 2,121.4 in San Francisco, Calif. The
average rate of gonorrhea infection for the 61 major
cities of the U.S. was 640.2 per 100,000. For the
same year, syphilis rates ranged comparably from

10.4 cases per 100,000 population nationally to

93.4 cases per 100,000 in Newark, N.J.

Whence VD? Venereal disease is an old problem.

Gonorrhea has been with us at least 5,500 years,
and although the history of syphilis is not as clear,
it does extend beyond the memory of modem
Western man. The spread of venereal disease is
encouraged by its high infectious rate and by its
status as a shameful and secret illness. Equally
infectious diseases such as smallpox have been
conquered, but venereal disease eludes eradica-
tion, due in part to a fundamental contradiction
between sexual mores and actual practice.

Historically, the chief prophylactic, or preventive,
measure offered the general public against venereal
disease has been abstinence from sex until the
beginning of a monogamous marriage. In fact,
however, if one generation had ever practiced
virginity until monogamous marriage occurred, no
venereal diseases would exist The fact that gonor-
rhea and syphilis together outnumber all other
communicable diseases attests to the ineffective-
ness of such an approach and to the serious peed
for more realistic preventive measures as well as
treatment.

VD in the twentieth century. During World V/ar I.
venereal disease ranked second only to influenza
among infectious diseases. Venereal disease kept
men out of the service and. once in service, out of
combat. Thus, the military began a massive vene-
real disease control program which ended at the
conclusion of the war. Not until the build-up for
World War |l was another major program begun.

290

Medicine

and v/ith the discovery of the effect of penicillin
on venereal diseases, early in the 1940s. their
eradication seemed in sight.

Unfortunately, that very possibility led to changes
in the treatment of venereal disease which virtually
assured its survival. With the advent of penicillin,
venereal disease treatment was taken out of the
hands of the U.S. Public Health Service and shifted
into those of the private physician. The American
Social Health Association estimated that in 1972
private physicians treated 75% of all venereal
disease cases yet reported less than 15% of them,
despite mandatory state reporting laws. Because
venereal diseases are highly infectious, this fail-
ure to report cases and follow up on infectious
contacts leaves the diseases free to spread.

Failure to report also accounted for an apparent
decline in venereal disease infection, and conse-
quent reduction of venereal disease control pro-
grams. Following World War II, tax dollars allocated
for venereal disease control were cut from 1 1 cents
per capita to 3 cents per capita, closing dov/n fed-
eral, state, and local case-finding programs. By the
late 1950s, alarming new rates of syphilis infection
had appeared, and in 1961 a federal task force was
created to recommend steps to eradicate the dis-
ease. 1971 witnessed the formation of a second
task force, this time to investigate the epidemic of
gonorrhea.

Why the rise? A secondary effect of the discovery
of penicillin as an effective treatment for venereal

disease was public apathy. With a fully effective
curative treatment at hand, one could assume that
the danger of infection had passed. Many assumed
just that, and paid less heed to available preventive
measures.

Among the chief preventive measures generally
available was the condom. Military experience in
World Wars I and II indicated that use of the con-
dom could substantially reduce, if not eliminate,
the danger of infection by genital contact. An
Army study demonstrated that gonorrhea infec-
tion rates could be reduced from the 625 per 1,000
current in the Army at that time to 35 per 1,000.

A second factor in venereal disease control,
principally control of gonorrhea, v/as the use of
female contraceptive devices. Although not in-
tended as venereal disease prophylactics, the dia-
phragm and various contraceptive foams and
jellies effectively prevented infection of the cervix
by the gonococcus. Use of the birth control pill,
which had become widespread by the early 1960s,
displaced these devices and opened the way for
increased gonorrhea infection.

The pill had one final effect which passed un-
noticed for some time. Oral contraceptives cause
the normally acid vaginal flora to become alkaline,
and increase moisture in the vaginal tract. Gono-
cocci thrive in conditions of moisture and alka-
linity, escalating the chances of infection on a
single exposure from 40% in the female not taking
the pill to 100% for the woman who is.

Fe-gc Old NEV/SVi'cE’C

Medicine

VD today. Today, as in the past, venereal disease
control depends on five basic procedures: public
education: development of effective prophylactics:
case finding: treatment: and follow-up. In a sense,
these measures are self-evident. They are standard
for the conquest of any communicable disease,
and have been apparent for many years. With
venereal disease, however, shrouded as it is in
centuries of unjust prejudice, shame, and myth,
conquest depends on the cooperation not only
of the public but of the medical profession, drug
manufacturers, and government agencies active in
funding and carrying out effective programs. Vene-
real disease education illustrates the interrelation-
ship of these groups.

To be effective, venereal disease education must
deal with access to the health care delivery system.
It is not enough to inform the public about the
symptoms and consequences of venereal diseases.
We must also be certain that physicians, hospitals,
and the public health services are prepared to
handle the huge caseload that would result from
effective education. At present this is not so. Many
physicians are not adequately trained in detecting
and treating venereal diseases: others suffer from
the same taboos about venereal disease that afflict
the general population. Public health services were
admirably designed to tackle case finding, treat-
rnent, and public education. However, today, with
the barest minimum of funding in relation to the
problem, they are unable to provide the services

A poster prepared for the United Givers Fund expresses
the growth of venereal disease among teen-agers.

Girol thinks
long hair is groovy,
digs now sounds, '
wears bell bottoms.

Count., y, UGF, V/oiKngton, D.C

required. Finally, the finest case finding and treat-
ment services will not avail unless financial bar-
riers to care are removed. Even free treatment
will fail to solve the problem if unrealistic sched-
uling or remote locations add indirect costs such
as transportation and time off work.

National Commission on VD. In March 1972, the
National Commission on Venereal Disease issued
its report, detailing the rise of venereal disease
infections to their highest point since the intro-
duction of antibiotic drugs 20-30 years earlier.
Warning that venereal disease was epidemic and
gonorrhea "out of control,” the commission offered
40 recommendations aimed at controlling the
spread of these diseases. The commission added
that even if its recommendations were fully imple-
mented the number of cases could be expected
to continue to rise in 1973.

The campaign recommended by the commission
would include a voluntary venereal disease educa-
tion program for school children starting in the
seventh grade: enforcement of existing mandatory
tests for syphilis and gonorrhea: stricter reporting:
and more money for case finding, follow-up, and
treatment. Enforcement of mandatory tests alone
would result in the screening of 40 million people
in fiscal year 1973. The commission recommended
a federal investment of almost S300 million over the
next five fiscal years, including S46.1 million for the
coming year. However, in 1972 the federal budget
called for spending only two-thirds of that amount.
Commission officials pointed out that while an
estimated S43 million is being spent this year on
venereal disease control by all groups combined,
the total cost of the effects of syphilis and gonor-
rhea would be S364 million for the same period.

Beyond the commission. Broader steps against
venereal disease will entail reevaluation of many
attitudes toward venereal disease itself and the
nature of health care, and a restructuring of the
systems that deliver all forms of treatment today.
Stricter observation of those firms engaged in
testing and manufacturing prophylactics and cura-
tive drugs may be required. And recommendations
for increased government and medical school
funding for venereal disease control programs will
require close scrutiny to prevent the creation of a
new class of "VD professionals" and assure the
delivery of services to the public.

Realistic prevention programs must operate at
several levels to identify the massive pool of those
carriers who show no symptoms of disease, treat
them and their contacts, and reach nev/ cases. The
first level of prevention should be case finding,
currently impeded by failure to report cases. Man-
datory testing should be expanded to screen more
potential cases: for example, marriage require-

Microbiology

Paul Kniskern, MEDICAL WORLD NEWS

merits could add a gonorrhea test to the syphilis
screening already in force. Tests for both syphilis
and gonorrhea should be required as part of pre-
natal care. The U.S. Public Health Service began a
pilot screening program for gonorrhea among
women having a routine vaginal examination.
Other times when a patient routinely passes through
the hands of a physician could be developed as
opportunities for screening.

All partners of an infected person must be identi-
fied, tested, and treated. This second level of pre-
vention, treatment of all exposed persons regard-
less of test results, must be enforced because of
the relative inefficiency of tests and the great in-
crease of gonorrhea that does not present obvious
symptoms.

The third level of realistic prevention is the devel-
opment and use of effective prophylactics, devices
that will prevent infection upon exposure. In this
area, vaccines are the traditional remedy. But re-
search on vaccines is hampered by the nature of
the diseases and the lack to date of a reliable ex-
perimental animal model. The potential prophylac-
tic role of contraceptives other than the pill has
been largely ignored, despite a report issued by
Pfizer Laboratories that indicated that eight sue
devices have been proven in laboratory studies
to prevent gonorrhea, syphilis, and other vagina
tract infections as effectively as they preven
conception. . ,

Realistic prevention depends finally on eac
these steps, and upon the equitable distribution o
all the services they entail. If treatment, inclu ing
access to prophylactic drugs, is limited °

those who can afford to pay the direct and in irec

Alan Hinman, New York's chief
of epidemiology, examines a
chart diagramming the sexual
contacts of a gonorrhea carrier.
New federal grants to state
health departments totaling
$16 million were to be used for
diagnostic laboratories and
screening programs to seek out
and eradicate the disease
in asymptomatic carriers.

cost of service, venereal diseases will continue to
spread epidemically.

—Jerry Lama

See also Feature Articles: TEST-TUBE BABIES;
CANCER UNDER ATTACK; THE NOTORIOUS
TRIO: MERCURY, LEAD, AND CADMIUM; NUTRI-
TION AND THE AMERICAN DIET; Year in Review:
VETERINARY MEDICINE.

Microbiology

Advances were made in several areas involving
microscopic organisms during 1971-72. As is al-
ways the case, these results had implications in
other biological and medical sciences.

Subcellular studies. Ecologists had long had the
problem of how best to measure community activ-
ity in a given natural environment. For example,
it was difficult to determine whether forms of mi-
crobial life observed in a natural environment were
metabolically active, dormant, or even dying.
Recent studies of the cell's fundamental energy-
producing mechanism, however, led to the devel-
opment of a technique that may be used as an
objective criterion of community activity.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the principal
compound involved in a cell’s energy-yielding and
energy-requiring reactions. Energy is released
from ATP by hydrolysis (decomposition by the
action of water), and ATP is converted to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine monophos-
phate (AMP). Thus, these three nucleotides couple
all of the metabolic reactions of living cells. The
amount of metabolically available energy that is

293

Courtesy, U«on Blonetics, Inc.

Degeneration characterized by abnormal structures
within the nuclei and by cavities near them ivss found in
lung cells infected with Mason-Pfizer monkey virus. The
virus is characteristic of tumor-causing RNA viruses, but
Its effects on cells had never before been observed.

momentarily stored in this system is related to the
mole fractions, or concentrations, of ATP, ADP,
and AMP in the system. This value was being
termed the "energy charge." The value of the
energy charge during growth of bacterial and
mammalian cells is about 0.8. Maintenance of
life, but not growth, seems possible at energy
charge values between 0.8 and 0.5. Energy charge
va ues below 0.5 appear to be incompatible with
maintenance of life, and such cells appear to be in
a dying state.

The bacterial cell membrane regulates the trans-
port of nutrients into the cell and wastes out of the
cell contains enzyme systems involved in energy
production and in respiration, and serves as the
site of synthesis of many cellular components. All
"membranes are composed almost en-
irely o two classes of compounds, proteins and
hpids (fatty subtances). The proteins have enzy-

br?ne “w th Provide the mem-

brane with its distinctive functional properties

he actual molecular organization of membranes
however, remained poorly understood.

for bToino* ''isualized a fluid mosaic model

biological membranes. In this model, globular

294

protein molecules are considered to be partially
embedded in a matrix of lipid, with the protein
molecules being mobile in the plane of the mem-
brane. This fluidity might be important in the trans-
port of substances across the membrane and in
other biological functions peculiar to the mem-
brane. Recent experiments provided strong sup-
porting evidence for the fluid mosaic nature of
the bacterial cell membrane. Bacteria were induced
to synthesize the protein that transports the milk
sugar lactose into the bacterial cell. It was found
that this transport protein was inserted in all
regions of the cell membrane rather than at fixed
regions. These experiments also showed that the
lactose transport protein molecules v/ere inserted
equally well into both previously and newly synthe-
sized portions of the membrane.

In the area of genetics, scientists presented in-
direct evidence that they had succeeded in intro-
ducing an active bacterial gene into human cells.
The human cells were derived from a patient with
galactosemia, a disease caused by the absence of
the gene that directs the synthesis of the enz>'me
enabling the person to metabolize the sugar galac-
tose. A bacterial virus picked up the specific gene
from bacterial cells that could metabolize galac-
tose. When the human cells were exposed to the
virus, an active enzyme was produced that enabled
the human cells to metabolize galactose. Whether
this gene could be replicated by the human cells
and passed on to the daughter cells was not de-
termined. It was thought by some scientists that
human genetic diseases may be cured some day
by such "genetic engineering."

Disease-causing microbes. Infection of new-
born infants by the bacterium Staphylococcus
aureus (staph) acquired in hospitals continued
to be a serious problem. Although staph is a com-
mon human parasite, especially deadly and often
drug-resistant forms are found in hospitals. To
guard against staph infections, the germicide
hexachlorophene long had been used in soaps
and medicinal cleansers. Hexachlorophene was
also used in certain adult cosmetics. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned hexa-
chlorophene from cosmetics early in 1972 and
advised hospitals not to bathe babies in substances
containing it. This action was based on the experi-
mental finding that brain damage occurred in
animals that had absorbed high quantities of hexa-
chlorophene through the skin, although no such
injuries had been reported for humans.

Following the FDA ban, a sequence of events
occurred that illustrated how the beneficial and
the potentially harmful effects of a drug must be
weighed in order to determine proper use. A rising
incidence of outbreaks of staph infections among

Microbiology

newborn infants was noted and was attributed
to thb discontinuance of the use of hexachloro-
phene. Hospitals may have overreacted to the di-
rective by not using hexachlorophene-containing
cleansers at all, even on the hands of nursery per-
sonnel, a use that was not banned. The FDA
changed its ruling to state that babies may be
bathed in hexachlorophene-containing solutions
on a temporary basis should there be signs of an
impending staph outbreak.

Habies is a virus considered to be invariably fatal
in man. Recently, however, a six-year-old boy was
reported to have recovered from the disease, con-
tracted from the bite of an infected bat. The child
began the 14-day course of the rabies vaccine
four days after his exposure to rabies, but symp-
toms of the disease began to appear two days after
completion of the series. Scientists from the Na-
tional Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta,
Ga., took charge of the case and began a program
of symptomatic treatment. There are no drugs
knowh to be effective against the rabies virus
(or any other virus), and treatment of thb symptoms
was the only alternative. The treatment included
continuous monitoring of heart and lung functions,
prevention of an oxygen deficiency by cutting an
opening into the windpipe; and mechanical assis-
tance for the lungs. Further experience with
specific treatment measures on rabies-infected lab-
oratory animals and prolonged survivals achieved
with other recent human patients resulted in hope
that the possibility of recovering from the disease
might be increased appreciably.

In contrast to the case of many cancers in ani-
mals, no cancer-causing viruses had as yet been
isolated from human cancer patients— even though
virus-like particles were observed in a variety of
human cancer tissues. In late 1971 and early 1972,
there were reports of at least three viruses thought
to have been isolated from human cancer tissue.
One, however, was shown instead to be an animal
virus and research was still in progress on the
others.

The C-type virus was considered by many scien-
tists to be able to cause cancer. Viruses of this
type were thought to be able to exist in unex-
pressed and unobservable forms in many cells as
a part of their genetic makeup. Recently, two
chemicals, both of which were structural ana-
logues of a component of the genetic materia
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). were shown to e
able to activate C-type virus particles in anima
cell lines. These chemicals might be useful as
‘‘tools" with which to demonstrate the existence o
unexpressed C-type viruses in human cell lines. ^
New evidence was obtained that Hodgkins
disease, a lymphatic cancer, may be caused by two

Louis Pasteur— chemist and j

microbiologist— proved that i

microorganisms cause disease and |

fermentation and originated vaccines I

for rabies and anthrax. Pasteurization, J

a process of sterilizing liquid foods, |

is based on his v/ork. i

Microbiology

viruses working together, one containing ribo-
nucleic acid (RNA) and the other containing DNA.
The latter was thought to be related to the herpes
family of viruses. There was also speculation that
Hodgkins’ disease is contagious, most likely be-
cause of transmission of the DNA-containing virus.

Although it was discovered in 1874, the bac-
terium that causes leprosy had never been cul-
tivated in a test tube. Leprosy infects only humans
and has not even been transmitted to higher pri-
mates. The bacterium prefers the cooler regions of
the body for optimal growdh, and it had been found
to grow very slowly in the foot pads of mice. There
was evidence that the armadillo might be a good
experimental animal host for leprosy. It has a low
skin and body temperature, which the leprosy bac-
terium requires, and has a long enough life to give
scientists time to study the slowly progressive
nature of the disease.

Smallpox, an entirely human viral disease, ap-
peared to be almost extinct, so much so that the
U.S. Public Health Service no longer advocated
routine vaccination against it and most states
had ceased to require vaccination of school-age
children. Eradication of smallpox was brought
about by a worldwide vaccination program. It
was thought that the virus no longer existed in

those societies in which extensive vaccination
programs had been enforced and in which there
have been no recently reported cases. (The last
reported case in the U.S. occurred in 1949.) There
were, however, annual reports of instances of
severe complications resulting from the vaccina-
tion itself: a few instances even resulted in death.
The disease was still residual in a few countries,
most notably Ethiopia, India, and Pakistan, and
continued surveillance for it would be required,
with routine vaccination recommended for per-
sons who might be exposed to it.

A 1971 epidemic in the U.S. of horse sleeping
sickness (Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis,
or VEE) was confined to southern Texas by the
cooperative action of various state and federal
agencies. By a stroke of good fortune a vaccine
against VEE had been developed by microbiolo-
gists at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute
of Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick, Md., several
years prior to the epidemic. The U.S. Department
of Defense provided the vaccine, which was dis-
tributed to veterinarians who administered it
at federal expense to over two million horses in
19 states and the District of Columbia.

VEE is frequently fatal to horses but is seldom
fatal to man, who is also susceptible to it. The vac-

A new herpes virus, the type responsible for recurring blisters in humans, was found during research
on another virus suspected of causing cancer in rhesus monkeys. Disruption of white cells by the virus
is evident in the contrast between a normal cell culture (left) and one infected by the new virus (right).

cine was still considered to be experimental, and
it was unlicensed in the U.S. for human use. VEE
was first detected in Venezuela in 1935 and spread
to southeastern Mexico in 1970. In early 1971 the
virus "jumped” into the Tampico area of central
Mexico. VEE is usually transmitted through the
bites of infected mosquitoes, but it can also be
transmitted by other biting insects, or it can even
be airborne. Most recently, the VEE virus was also
found in an infected vampire bat in Mexico. Vam-
pire bats subsist on a blood diet and frequently
feed on horses. They also cohabit with other
species of bats, including those that migrate in
massive numbers to the southwestern U.S. from
Mexico. Thus, there was ample opportunity for the
transfer of the VEE virus to areas far from an epi-
demic area. For these reasons, VEE continued to
be a significant public health problem, and a joint
U.S.-Mexican effort was underway to vaccinate all
horses in northern Mexico to provide a barrier
against the northward spread of the disease.

—Robert G. Eagon

Molecular biology

Developments in molecular biology in recent
months displayed more clearly than ever the dis-
solution of distinct areas of study for its sub-
disciplines. Basic research was more often than
not producing information that had immediate,
often practical applications in other sciences,
especially in medicine.

Biochemistry

Many developments in biochemistry in the past
year provided insight into relationships between
the structure and the function of the chemical
constituents of living things. Significant advances
in our knowledge of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic
acids, and enzymes were reported, but proteins
received particular attention. The most noteworthy
advances in protein chemistry concerned hemo-
globin, the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood
cells (erythrocytes); the immunoglobulins, which
act to neutralize foreign chemical substances; and
the protein hormone insulin.

Modifying hemoglobins. Through the efforts
of many investigators over the past 20-25 years, it
was established that hemoglobin from most verte-
brates is composed of two pairs of different poly-
peptide chains, and that each chain contains a
molecule of heme, the iron-containing group to
which oxygen molecules are bound during their
transport throughout the body. Thus, the protein
portion of hemoglobin, called globin, may be des-

Redfern. INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

"I've lUst discovered a new and less expensive method
ol exciting molecules."

ignated in which a and p indicate the two
different chains. Each of the chains is folded in a
unique, three-dimensional shape, and the four
chains are combined together in a precise manner
to form the functional molecule.

In man over 100 different variants of hemoglobin
are known, most of which occur only in one of the
amino acids in either of the two chains. The most
widespread variant is hemoglobin S, the major
species of hemoglobin in persons with sickle-cell
anemia. This molecule contains normal a-chains,
which are identical to those found in the vast ma-
jority of persons, and abnormal /3-chains in which
the amino acid valine is found instead of glutamic
acid at what is described as the sixth position from
the amino-terminus. When oxygen is removed
(deoxygenation), hemoglobin S is less soluble
than normal hemoglobin and cells composed of it
are deformed. The deformed cells have a shorter
lifetime than normal and masses of them can block
blood flow in capillary networks, causing severe
anemia and periodic episodes of pain and fever
(a crisis). Although sickle-cell anemia is a genetic
disease and an obvious candidate for management
in the future by genetic engineering, other, more
immediate approaches to its management must be
sought.

Recent studies by Anthony Cerami and Charles
Manning at Rockefeller University in New York
City provided a most promising approach. Other
workers had reported that the sickling process
was inhibited if high blood levels of urea, the com-
pound that is the chief end product of protein

297

I

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i

Courtesy, Dr. Anthony Ceroml. Rocl-efeller University

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1

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el'll a par/ear suffering

JTJll ? ® beneficial effects

t eaiment with the compound cvanate roUc

oxygen (top, Show the noLal o,^ZZe co^'"^
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metabolism, could be maintained in patients with
the anemia. The concentrations of urea required,
however, were many times greater than normal and
adverse side effects occurred.

Cerami and Manning were aware that many of
the effects of urea on proteins can result from
cyanate, a compound that may be derived from
urea and is often present in urea solutions. They
treated erythrocytes from patients v/ith sickle-
cell anemia under very mild conditions with rather
low concentrations of cyanate and found that a
large majority of the cells retained their normal
shape when deoxygenated. In addition, the effects
of cyanate were irreversible; treated cells did not
sickle even after removal of cyanate and when re-
oxygenated and deoxygenated again.

Cerami and Manning also found that no more
than two molecules of cyanate were incorporated
per molecule of hemoglobin S, and that both
cyanate molecules had reacted with the two a-
amino groups of the valyl residue at the amino-
terminus of the two a-chains. The modified hemo-
globin S also had a near normal solubility, which
appeared to account for its lack of sickling. It was
of considerable interest that amino groups in
other proteins involved were not reactive with
cyanate.

These impressive results prompted further
studies with experimental animals to determine
whether cyanate could be used therapeutically.
Blood levels of cyanate sufficient to modify hemo-
globin could easily be obtained by injection or
feeding under conditions that produced no adverse
side effects. In addition, only the hemoglobin had
reacted extensively with cyanate. The modified
hemoglobin retained its ability to transport oxygen
and help maintain the normal pH (acidity) of blood.
Early results of further studies, still in progress,
indicated that erythrocytes in human subjects
partially modified v/ith cyanate were not destroyed
at the rapid rate found in sickle-cell anemia, and
that there might be a general improvement in the
disease.

Immunoglobulin structure. Studies over the
past decade provided much insight into the struc-
ture of the polypeptide chains of the major classes
of immunoglobulins and of the G class in partic-
ular. Immunoglobulin Gs have a molecular weight
of about 150,000 and are comprised of two heavy
(H) chains with molecular weights of about 50,000
and two light (L) chains of about half this weight.

The four chains are combined to form a molecule
thought to be in the shape of the letter Y. The two
arms of the Y. called Fab fragments, are each com-
prised of a light chain and about half of a heavy
chain. The leg of the Y, called the Fc fragment,
contains the remaining portions of the heavY

298

Molecular biology

chains. The heavy chain can be divided into four
quarters of about equal length that are designated
the V„, Cjjl, Ch 2, and C„3 domains, and the light
chains can be divided into equal halves designated
as the and Cl domains (V = variable region;
C = constant region). The amino acid sequences of
each of the six domains are very similar. Four do-
mains are present in each Fab fragment, tv/o com-
posed of variable regions (Vfj and Vl) and tv/o of
the constant regions (C^f and Cl). The remaining
domains are in the Fc fragment and are formed
from tv/o Ch 2 regions and two C„3 regions.

It is believed that the variable domains in Im-
munoglobulin G form the antigen binding site, the
part of the molecule that combines in a comple-
mentary fashion with a specific foreign substance,
and that the amino acid sequences forming this
site vary from one specific immunoglobulin to
another, depending upon the nature of the antigen.
The constant domains mediate other important
effector functions of immunoglobulins. Although
this model of immunoglobulin structure v/as con-
sistent with available information, the detailed
structure of the antigen binding site, as v/ell as the
structural relationships among the domains, would
be ascertained only with a more exact knov/ledge
of the spatial arrangements of their atoms.

A crystallographic analysis at low resolution of
the Fab fragment from a human immunoglobulin
v/as reported in 1972 by R. J. Poljak, L. M. Amzel,
and H. P. Avey at Johns Hopkins University, Balti-
more, Md., in collaboration with A. Nisonoff at the

A model of immunoglobulin suggests that it consists
of two heavy (H) polypeptide chains and tv/o light (L)
chains combined into a Y shape- Each arm (Fab) has
two variable (V) and two constant (C) regions, each with
an L and part of an H chain. The leg (Fc) contains
the rest of the H chains in four C regions.

Fab Fab

University of Illinois. Greater resolution was
needed to distinguish the exact location of groups
and atoms and to see details of the antigen binding
site, but the investigators were able to conclude
that the Fab fragment contained two globular
structures thought to correspond to the variable
and constant domains. This was interpreted as
good evidence that the similarity in amino acid
sequence between regions is reflected in confor-
mational similarities in domains.

Otto Epp of the University of Graz, Austria, work-
ing at the Max Planck Institute in Munich, W.Ger.,
with W. Palm, H. Fehlhammer, A. Ruhimann, W.
Steigeman, P. Schwager, and R. Huber, used X-
ray diffraction methods to examine crystals of a
Bence-Jones protein, one produced in persons
v/lth bone marrow tumors and corresponding to a
single type of immunoglobulin light chain. They
also found that the molecule is composed of two
globular parts, with characteristics most probably
corresponding to the Vl and Cl domains.

Another group at the National Institutes of Health
in Bethesda, Md. (V. R. Sarma, E. W. Silverton,
D. R. Davies, and W. D. Terry) reported crystallo-
graphic studies on an intact Immunoglobulin G
molecule that provided convincing arguments
that the Y-shaped structure for it was indeed cor-
rect. Globular regions corresponding to the Fab
and Fc fragments were discerned and appeared to
be joined by nonglobular stretches of polypeptide
chain. Analysis at higher resolution was needed to
see more structural detail, including the antigen
binding site, but it was encouraging that these
analyses confirmed to a substantial degree the
model of immunoglobulin structure deduced by
other means.

Insulin binding. Although insulin had been used
for 50 years in controlling diabetes and was the
first protein whose complete amino acid sequence
was established, its mechanism of action remained
poorly understood, primarily because insulin's
effects are produced indirectly. It was generally
agreed that insulin binds target cells to cause
selective amplification of preexisting cellular pro-
cesses. Recent studies on the nature of the insulin-
binding substances in target cells began to shed
fight on the molecular basis for these events.

Particularly noteworthy were studies by Pedro
Cuatrecasas at Johns Hopkins University, who had
shown earlier that the metabolic effects of insulin
were obtained when it was bound to cells under
conditions that did not allow it to penetrate the
cell. It was further found that the specific insulin-
binding structures were associated with isolated
fiver membranes. Cuatrecasas nov/ reported that
it was possible to solubilize the insulin-binding
structures by extraction of either liver or fat cell

299

Molecular biology

membranes with detergents. The solubilized prep-
aration specifically and reversibly binds insulin,
whereas derivatives of insulin appeared to bind in
direct proportion to their biological activity and
other polypeptide hormones did not bind. Evidence
was also provided that the isolated molecule is a
protein with a molecular weight of about 300,000.
Although this protein must be closely associated
with lipids (fatty substances) in the cell mem-
branes, it did not appear to be a lipoprotein. The
dissociation constant for the insulin-receptor
protein complex was of the same order of magni-
tude as antigen-antibody binding and highly sug-
gestive of considerable binding specificity.

G. Vann Bennett and Cuatrecasas also found
that the number of insulin receptors in fat cells
from rats made diabetic by chemical means was
not decreased and that the diminished responsive-
ness could not be explained by structural altera-
tions in the receptors. How the event of insulin
binding to receptors is transmitted to other mole-
cules in the cell and translated into altered, specific
chemical processes could only be answered by
additional studies.

Insulin and nerve growth factor. An interesting
and somewhat surprising relationship between
insulin and nerve growth factor was reported. NGF
is a protein with a molecular weight of about 26,500
that contains two identical polypeptide chains. It
was known to enhance the growth of sympathetic
ganglia and appeared to be essential for main-
taining the sympathetic nervous system. W. A.
Frazier, R, H. Angeletti, and R. A. Bradshaw at
Washington University in St. Louis, Mo., had es-
tablished previously the complete amino acid se-
quence of the 118 residues in the single polypep-
tide chain of NGF, including three intrachain
disulfide bonds. Although at first the sequence did
not seem to resemble other proteins, the observa-
tion that NGF had many biological effects in com-
mon with insulin, prompted a closer comparison
of its sequence and those of insulin and its pre-
cursor, proinsulin.

Some degree of structural similarity was found,
although not as much as is found in other sets of
structurally related proteins. The fact that NGF
contained 33 more residues than proinsulin did
not minimize the resemblance since the additional
residues were similar in some respects to the
amino-terminal portion of proinsulin. Most signifi-
cantly, one of the three disulfide bonds in the two
molecules was in a closely corresponding position.

On me basis of these apparent structural rela-
tionships betv/een NGF and insulin and their
analogous physiological effects on their target
cells, it was suggested that the two hormones are
evolutionarily related. The gene controlling the

300

sequence of NGF may have been derived from an
ancestral gene for proinsulin.

The relationships between proinsulin and NGF
suggested goals for future studies on the mech-
anism of action of NGF. For example, it will be
interesting to find whether NGF forms a complex
on target cells analogous to that of insulin and its
receptor protein.

—Robert L. Hill

Biophysics

X-ray diffraction and refinements of its technique
continued to be the mainstay of the biophysicist’s
application of the principles and tools of the phys-
ical sciences to the elucidation of the structure
and function of biological systems. Materials that
were periodic, or that could be crystallized into
periodic structures, including enzymes, muscle
proteins, metallo-proteins, and viruses, were stud-
ied by this technique. Other techniques were be-
ing adapted for use on other biological materials.
Nuclear magnetic resonance, for example, v/as
used quite widely for the determination of pro-
tein configuration and the mapping of active sites.

New techniques. Infrared spectroscopy ap-
peared to hold considerable promise for the study
of the orientations of nucleic acids, the compounds
found primarily in cell nuclei, usually in combina-
tion with proteins. Nucleic acids consist of four
bases, or side groups, attached to a backbone of

Crystals ot human immunoglobulin subjected to electron
microscopy reveaied that the molecute has three very
distinct globular regions. This overall shape was
consistent with what had been predicted in many other
chemical, enzymatic, and microscopic studies.

Cow»-e?y. D'j. V, P. Sc.r.>o, D. R Da.iyi. L W. lob<7^, t. W. S.'vyf’b-
V/. 0 Tefr^. "Co'd 5p''-'\'3 Hcrbc' Sy^p0S'0“

Molecular biology

alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. Re-
cent studies looked at the transitions of deoxyribo-
nucleic acid (DNA) from the B to the A form.
Polarized infrared light was used to measure and
compare the differences in absorption of light
caused by vibrations of the backbone. From the
recorded differences it was possible to estimate
angles of the sugar-phosphate groups that were
in good agreement with X-ray diffraction studies.
Because proteins do not absorb strongly in the
infrared region used, this technique should prove
ideal for studying nucleic acid structure, and for
determining the effects of agents that modify it.

During the year several promising methods were
developed for use in biophysical studies. In one
of these, the photoelectric effect, a phenomenon
long the province of the physicist and more re-
cently of the chemist, was added to the tools of the
biophysicist. The photoelectric effect occurs when
high-frequency radiation impinging on certain sub-
stances causes bound electrons to be given off
with a velocity proportional to the frequency of the
radiation. Chemists use photoelectron spectros-
copy for chemical analysis: a sample is irradiated
v/ith ultraviolet radiation and emits photoelectrons
(or with X rays and emits Auger electrons) whose
energy spectra are analyzed in a high-resolution
spectrometer to determine directly the electronic
energy levels of the elements present in the sam-
ple. This technique can be used to analyze un-
known samples for their elements; it is also use-
ful for the study of surface phenomena since in a
solid sample the electrons that form the spectrum
come from a thin layer near the surface, usually
less than 50 A in depth (one angstrom, A = 10“®
cm). By replacing the spectrometer with a phos-
phor screen and a camera and thus forming a
photoelectron microscope, it became possible to
map the structure of biological surfaces and mem-
branes.

Visual excitation studies. Recent experiments
offered intriguing clues about the mechanism by
v/hich incident light causes visual excitation of the
rods, the achromatic photoreceptor cells in the
retina of the eye. In vertebrates, the photosensi-
tive pigment in the rods is the protein rhodopsin.
Rhodopsin is located in the membrane of the rod
outer segment and accounts for about 80% of its
total protein. It consists of the lipoprotein opsin
and a group of atoms that gives rise to color, the
visual chromophore 11-cis retinal (which is de-
rived from vitamin A). As a result of alterations that
can occur in its atomic bonds, retinal can exist in
the form of either cis or trans isomers; to combine
with opsin it must be in its 11-cis form. Phospho-
lipids in the membrane of the rod outer segments
are thought to stabilize this association. Exposure

inner

segment

nucleus

Rod cells in the retina of the eye have outer segments
of thin disks with the pigment rhodopsin attached.

The effects of light's action on rhodopsin spread
to the inner segment housing the cell's energy supply
and then past the nucleus to the synapse, a point
of near contact with a nerve cell leading to the brain.

to light photoisomerizes the retinal and initiates a
series of changes in the configuration of opsin
as its deep red color is replaced by light yellow
(bleaching process), which apparently results in
the release of retinal. If during this process retinal
is reisomerized to cis form, rhodopsin is regen-
erated.

Recent studies of frog retina indicated that
rhodopsin undergoes free rotational diffusion
motion in the visual receptor membrane. Having

301

Molecular biology

established the rotational relaxation time of 20
/is {one microsecond, fis = 10“® seconds) and as-
suming rhodopsin to be a sphere of about 25 A
radius, researchers determined the effective vis-
cosity (ability to flow) of the membrane medium to
be that of a typical light oil, such as olive oil. On
the basis of these properties, it was suggested
that rhodopsin may function as a diffusional car-
rier in the membrane transport processes that lead
to excitation of the visual receptor.

Other recent experiments suggested that rho-
dopsin may have a piore indirect role in the excita-
tion process. Adenylate cyclase (cyclase), the
enzyme that catalyzes the primary energy-pro-
ducing activity of cells, the conversion of adeno-
sirie triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenosine 3',5'-
monophosphate (cAMP), was found to be present
in tfie rod outer segments at a specific activity
higher than that reported for any other tissue.
Furthermore, illumination decreased cyclase activ-
ity in direct proportion to the bleaching of rhodop-
sin, which suggested some sort of direct coupling
between the bleaching process and the enzyme.
Other investigators reported finding a light-stim-
ulated phosphorylation (conversion into a phos-
phate) of rhodopsin by ATP that will occur even if
ATP is added after the flash of light. Since this
reaction would not proceed after the membrane
was disrupted, a membrane-bound kinase (en-
zyme catalyst) appeared to be involved.

It was not clear whether there was any relation-
ship between the inactivation of cyclase by the
bleaching of opsin and the photo-induced phos-
phorylation of rhodopsin, but there was evidence
to suggest that the actual excitation of the visual
receptor may be mediated by cAMP. Electrophysio-
logical studies using the eye of the horseshoe crab
Limulus showed that the addition of cAMP mimics
the effects of light on the photoreceptor cell. Ami-
nophylline and theophylline, two inhibitors of
phosphodiesterase (the enzyme that hydrolyzes
cAMP to 5' AMP), also produce identical effects,
presumably by increasing the intracellular concen-
tration of cAMP by inhibiting its breakdown by
phosphodiesterase.

It was also reported that the addition of small
amounts of extracellular calcium decreases the
sodium permeability of visual receptors, again
mimicking the effect of light. Since cAMP was
known to affect the transport of calcium in heart
muscle and intestinal mucosa, it v;as possible that
it also regulates the calcium transport in rod out-
er segments. Calcium, in turn, may reaulate the
changes in the permeability of the photoreceptor
membrane to sodium and, thus, excitation of the
visual receptor.

Research on membranes. Cell membranes were
302

the subject of intensive research because of the
numerous biochemical processes that occur on or
in them. Their dynamic nature was well illustrated
in the studies of rhodopsin. The complexity and
diversity of their structure was being pursued with
a variety of techniques in many laboratories.

From these studies the cell membrane emerged
as a structure about 80 A thick with a bimolecular
phospholipid core (two molecules of fatty com-
plexes), large portions of which are covered v/ith
proteins, glycoprotein, glycolipids, cholesterol,
and other molecules. In some cases these protein
molecules span the membrane from inner to outer
surface. The ratio of lipid to protein appears to
vary with the physiologic function of the mem-
brane, from about 75% lipid for the relatively in-
active myelin sheath around nerves to about 75%
protein for active bacterial and mitochondrial
membranes. Further studies suggested that the
conformation of membrane proteins may be re-
lated to function. Mitochondrial membranes show
a high proportion with spiral shapes, v/hereas
myelin membranes have more of their protein
flattened. Recent evidence also suggested that the
bimolecular core of the plasma membrane of
mammalian erythrocytes is asymmetrical, having
two types of phospholipid on the outer half of the
bilayer and two different ones on the inner half.

Another very active area of membrane research
studied the differences between the surfaces of
normal cells and cancer cells (or mammalian cells
after viral transformation). After transformation,
new antigens (foreign substances) appear; in
most cases these are identical to antigens pro-
duced by fetal tissue {see Feature Article; CANCER
UNDER ATTACK). Recent studies indicate that
polyoma-transformed cells synthesize more glyco-
protein. which is loosely bound to the cell sur-
face. There may also be changes in the sites of
transport across the membrane. Finally, the trans-
formed cells lose their sensitivity to contact in-
hibition, which normally restrains growth.

During the year it was found that transformed
cells treated with the cAMP analogue dibutyryl
cAMP regain many of the characteristics of normal
cells, including sensitivity to contact inhibition.
Levels of cAMP were found to be lov/er in polyoma-
transformed cells than in normal cells and this
decrease was shown to precede the establishment
of the transformed state, suggesting that cAMP is
the cause rather than the effect of the properties
of the transformed cells. Cyclic AMP, in fact, might
control cell growth and morphology in mammalian
systems.

Radiation biology. It was well known that DNA is
implicated as the target of the primary biological
lesion induced by ionizing or ultraviolet radiations.

Molecular biology

For this reason repair of DNA continued to be the
main preoccupation of workers in radiation bi-
ology. Three enzymatic mechanisms for the re-
pair of DNA were known to occur in the much-
studied bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli). The
first mechanism, photoreactivation, acts specifi-
cally to split pyrimidine dimers formed in DNA ex-
posed to ultraviolet light into their respective
monomers v/hen the cells are subsequently ex-
posed to visible light. The second system excises
radiation-induced damage from one strand of
DNA and resynthesizes the missing segment by
using the opposite, complementary strand of DNA
as the template. Since this mode of repair does not
require light it is called a dark repair process. The
third mechanism is under the control of the genes
involved in genetic recombination and is called
recombinational, or Rec, repair. It appears to re-
pair single-strand breaks in the sugar-phosphate
backbone that are induced primarily by such
ionizing radiation as X rays, and by certain chemi-
cals, but that may also be present after DNA repli-
cation in ultraviolet-irradiated cells. Rejoining of
single-strand breaks by this method requires that
the cells be incubated under growth conditions,
generally for 10-30 minutes at 37° C.

Evidence for two other repair mechanisms was
reported recently. Both of these modes v/ere faster

than Rec repair for mending X-ray induced, single-
strand breaks in DNA. Ultrafast repair, which oc-
curs in less than one minute at 0° C, rejoins breaks
produced under anoxic conditions (severe oxygen
deficiency), with the result that there are only
about one third as many breaks remaining in the
cells irradiated in the absence of oxygen as in
cells irradiated in the presence of oxygen. Thus,
oxygen acts not by increasing the number of
breaks produced but by changing them so that they
are no longer reparable by the ultrafast repair
process. The second mode of repair recently re-
ported appeared to involve the enzyme DNA poly-
merase I. Repair of about 80% of the remaining
breaks, whether induced by X rays delivered aero-
bically or anoxically, is completed by this method,
Pol repair, in 2-5 minutes at room temperature.

It was thought that these two fast systems re-
pair relatively simple breaks by a simple rejoining
of the DNA backbone (ultrafast) or replacing a few
bases (Pol repair). Rec repair presumably rejoins
more complex breaks using some of the steps
involved in genetic recombination.

Certain drugs, namely quinacrine, N-ethyl
maleimide, and hydroxyurea, were found to in-
hibit this ultrafast repair of anoxically produced
breaks in E. coii. In addition, quinacrine inhibited
Rec repair. These results had interesting implica-

A scanning electron micrograph
shov/s how sensory hairs (cilia)
on receptor cells in the saccule
oi a frog's ear may function
to transfer sound waves into
messages to the auditory nerve.
The cilia can be seen bound to
the bulb atop one specialized
cilium, which rests on a portion
of the receptor membrane
facking the rigid base under the
other cilia. Movement of the
masses distends the membrane
at the base of this cilium:
the distension is thought to
bring about changes that
stimulate nerve activity.

303

Molecular biology

tions for the treatment of solid cancers, which,
because of low oxygen tension in the tumor mass,
are generally more resistant to irradiation treat-
ment than surrounding healthy tissue. It would,
therefore, be desirable to make these tumors at
least as sensitive as the more fully oxygenated
surrounding tissue by the use of such drugs.

Future trends. After several years of decline and
stagnation, the U.S. budget for science appeared
to be on the increase. The emphasis, however,
would be on applied research, with the National
Science Foundation proposing to eliminate its
science development grants and further reduce
funds for graduate traineeships and institutional
grants for science. Basic research funds would
increase slightly, but the largest increases would
be for mission-oriented research and development.
Funds for research on cancer, and probably on
diseases of the heart and lungs, would be in-
creased sharply. Thus, human cells and their
viruses would be the new E. coli as molecular
pathology replaced molecular biology.

— Jeremy Baptist

Genetics

Molecular genetics remained the focus of inten-
sive exploration, with ever more sophisticated
techniques, and ever more specific questions
being asked about cell mechanisms. The year was
marked by no excitements to compare with the
discovery the year before of reverse transcriptase,
an enzyme responsible for the production of de-
oxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from a model provided
by ribonucleic acid (RNA), a thoroughly unex-
pected operation for RNA. There was, however,
growing appreciation that every seemingly simple
mechanism of DNA is involved in increasingly
more complex networks of relationships within
the cell.

This overall complexity, rather than any pro-
found difference-in basic operation, may v/ell have
accounted for the puzzling recalcitrance of some
underlying problems in the molecular biology of
eukaryotic cells (those with distinct nuclei). These
problems included the physical structure of the
chromosome and the mechanisms of regulation
of gene activity— problems that are rather well
understood now for the simpler viral and bacterial
systems. In responding to these challenges of
higher organisms, molecular geneticists began
crossing traditional boundaries that once com-
partmentalized biological research.

Reverse transcriptase studies. The main thrust
of studies with the enzyme reverse transcriptase
was the tracing of viruses newly implicated in
cancer in primates and perhaps in man. Research

304

groups led by Sol Spiegelman at Columbia Uni-
versity, David Baltimore at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT), and J. Ross at the
U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda,
Md., also used this enzyme with a sample of mes-
senger RNA (m-RNA) as a template. The m-RNA,
isolated from immature red blood cells of rabbits
and other mammals, was prepared in a way be-
lieved to encode for the globin protein portion of
hemoglobin. In a cell-free protein-synthesizing
system — containing ribosomes, amino acids
linked to transfer RNA (t-RNA) molecules, iron-
containing hemin molecules, and the appropriate
enzymes — this m-RNA did indeed effect the syn-
thesis of mammalian hemoglobin. The DNA that
was synthesized under the influence of the re-
verse transcriptase may, therefore, be equivalent
to the gene for the globin, an identity that remained
to be confirmed.

Apart from speculations about its use for the
genetic "engineering” of tissue cells, the ability
to produce quantities of a specific gene would be
technically invaluable. It would be an ideal method
of assaying specific m-RNAs in cells at different
stages of development or in different states. It
would also facilitate the analysis of the nucleotide
sequence of RNA through stepwise synthesis of
the corresponding DNA by the action of transcript-
ase. In its natural occurrence, the DNA for a spe-
cific gene accounts for less than one millionth of
the DNA content in a mammalian cell, which
evokes despair about attempts to isolate it directly.
However, m-RNAs, which reflect the activity of
specific genes, are produced differentially in
various tissues, and often amplified manyfold. We
can, therefore, be more optimistic about extracting
specific RNAs, and then using reverse-transcript-
ase to produce the DNA corresponding to a spe-
cific gene.

Further studies with m-RNAs will be facilitated
by the finding, by J. B. Gurdon and his colleagues
at the University of Oxford, that living frog eggs
can "translate” injected samples of RNA into their
corresponding proteins. The eggs are a relatively
simple biological system technically and retain
their activity for 24 hours or longer, during v/hich
each m-RNA molecule can be translated many
times. The system can recognize and encode into
DNA as little as one billionth of a gram of RNA
added to it.

Reverse transcriptase is inactive on pure, single-
stranded RNA templates: a short segment of com-
plementary RNA is required as a primer to which
DNA can attach and assemble itself. This primer
segment functions like the poly-A (adenine)-rich
ends found naturally in many RNAs. In the reverse
transcriptase experiments just described, the prim-

er v/as a synthetic poly-T (thymine), which binds to
the complementary As on the RNA and helps initi-
ate DNA synthesis.

Similar requirements had been established in
1967 by A. Kornberg’s group at Stanford Univer-
sity for the replication of viral DNA. In later studies
it v/as found that the RNA polymerase enzyme
probably initiates replication in bacterial cells
infected with the bacteriophage (virus) M13. RNA
polymerase was now commonly thought of as the
agent of translation, the production of m-RNA
copies of DNA genes. Short segments of such
copies may also be indispensable for the initia-
tion of replication of DNA, which once begun is
sustained by DNA polymerase.

Ligase and the swivelling enzyme. Ligases,
enzymes that repair nicks in one strand of a duplex
of DNA, were nov/ a routine part of the repertoire
of molecular genetics. V. Sgaramella, H. H. van de
Sande, and H. G. Khorana (working at the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin) reported that ligase associated
v/ith the bacterial virus T4, besides showing the
nick-sealing activity of other ligases, can join free
ends of two separate DNA duplexes. The applica-
tion of this tool to biologically active genes derived

Molecular biology

from various types of cells was under active study
in several laboratories.

Many DNA molecules are found in closed circles,
and much thought has been given to the way a
double helix might be wrapped into simple circles
without excessive twists. When DNA circles were
proven to be pure DNA lacking any protein linkers,
wrapping was thought to be due to a combined
action of nicking enzymes and sealing enzymes.
J. C. Wang at the University of California at Berke-
ley and J. J. Champou and R. Dulbecco at the Salk
Institute, San Diego, Calif., have now described a
protein (swivelling enzyme) that appears to un-
twist supercoiled DNA molecules. The reaction
appeared to occur at one turn at a time, rather
than the simultaneous relief afforded by a nicking
enzyme. The molecular mechanism of the swivel-
ling enzyme would be difficult to determine unless
intermediate stages could be captured.

Solving DNA puzzles. The molecular require-
ments for DNA recombination were illuminated by
studies on a protein coded by T4 and called simply
the product of gene 34 of that virus. Because an
enormous number of gene-34-protein molecules
are produced during viral grov/th, some struc-

In the test tube the enzyme reverse transcriptase requires a primer to initiate DNA production
from an RNA model, or template. The primer is poly-T (dT), a synthetic of the nucleic acid thymine.
When this piece of artificial RNA bonds with its complementary nucleic acid, adenine (A),
on the template, the RNA becomes active. DNA then begins assembling with the aid of the enzyme.

tsackbone inactive RNA template

DNA assembling

Molecular biology

tural rather than catalytic role for the protein had
been suspected. Bruce M. Alberts and Linda Frey
at Princeton University isolated the protein and
showed that it binds to single-stranded DNA in
such a way as to minimize self-associations and to
encourage the unwinding of duplexes, in effect
stretching out sequences to enable their exposure
to complementary ones. The addition of gene-34-
protein, therefore, facilitates the resynthesis of
DNA that has been melted with the strands separa-
ted. The protein may be a prime mover in the mech-
anism of genetic recombination. More recently
Y. Hotta and H. Stern at the University of California
at San Diego found that this protein, designated
by them "meiotic protein,” is almost always found
in cells in meiosis (reduction division).

Of growing interest was the work by L. S. Lerman
at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., on an-
other puzzle of DNA— how the extended fibers of
the double helix of a phage particle in an infected
cell can be condensed and packaged into the tiny
space of the phage head. Similar problems of DNA
compression in the sperm head and in chromo-
somes in higher forms had been explained (cor-
rectly?) by invoking complexes with basic pro-

teins that neutralize the multiple negative charges
of the DNA phosphates and allow tight compaction.
Lerman found a remarkable collapse of the ex-
tended structure of DNA solutions— but no chemi-
cal binding— in the presence of neutral water-
soluble polymers. The phage head contains the
compact DNA until the phage infects a new host
and the DNA springs back into expanded form.

Cell fusion techniques. Parallel to the deepening
of biochemical probes into basic genetic functions
was the explosive development of somatic cell
genetics. The underlying theme was the progres-
sive domestication of tissue cells in culture. This
consisted primarily of the accumulation of cell
lines and techniques to display precise features of
chromosome content or of enzymatic function— in
all events revealing the potentialities and the regu-
lation of the genetic information in the cell. The
most striking advance was the fusion of cells, in
many cases facilitated by the use of an enzyme
associated with inactivated virus particles.

After cells from different species have been
fused, clones of hybrid cells can be found that may
contain a sum of the parents' chromosomes, many
of which are unfortunately unstable in such com-

Transcription, the copying of a DNA sequence into messenger RNA, and translation of that information
into protein can be seen occurring simultaneously in the bacterium Escherichia coli. Special electron
microscope techniques developed at Oak Ridge (Tenn.) National Laboratory captured RNA linked by
spherical ribosomes attached to strands of DNA magnified 306,000 times (left) and 72,000 times (right).

Obituaries

binations. In the fusion of a mouse cell and a hu-
man cell, the human chromosomes are particularly
unstable. Such instability is a mixed curse: it
interferes with the observation of controlled vari-
ations from the norm, but it also produces a rich
variety of cell types, with different sets of chromo-
somes whose effects can then be measured.

The pathologist Henry Harris at Oxford, who
introduced virus-mediated fusion for genetic
analysis, pursued it with particular vigor to study
the genetic basis of malignancy. The results vary
considerably depending on the particular cell
lines under study; however, overall malignancy is
attenuated, or even extinguished, when cancer
cells are augmented with normal chromosomes.
These observations were the first steps to a formal
genetic analysis of the chromosomal basis of
malignancy. They would advance much further as
techniques were developed for identifying specific
chromosomes and for the construction of ceils
with a normal complement of chromosomes of
known origin.

Cell fusion techniques also offered a unique
opportunity to study the possible genetic role of
particles in the cytoplasm of cells. The occurrence
of DNA in mitochondria and other particles sug-
gested that these may be more than mere passive
reflectors of the information in chromosomal DNA.
In several experiments it appeared that the human
chromosomal contribution was overridden by the
mouse contribution, arguing for negative control
as a common cellular mechanism. Negative con-
trol was also inferred from studies on biochemical
attributes, including regulatory functions. The con-
clusions of all such studies indicated: (1) that
unexpressed functions in a cell derive from nega-
tive control (that is, the active inhibition of cer-
tain genes, an inhibition that also regenerates
new chromosomes): (2) that these functions can
be revived upon extraction of the controlling
factors: and (3) that the controlling factors are
stably associated with certain chromosomes.

The nature of the stable activation of the con-
trolling chromosome was the central challenge to
developmental genetics. One hypothesis had some
support from studies of X-chromosomes: stable
changes of a chromosome are often deletions of
some part of the chromosome. The activation of a
controlling chromosome would then result from
removing a small regulating unit from it, unleash-
ing the negative control over other specific gene
functions. In other cases, such deletions are al-
ready known to unleash positive functions.

While these studies were still at an exploratory
stage, cell fusion was a well-established method
tor mapping genetic mutations on various human
chromosomes, greatly accelerating work that

formerly required the painstaking collection of
pedigrees often insufficient or inappropriate to
allow firm conclusions. In the course of gene map-
ping F. H. Ruddle’s group at Yale noted the first
evidence of a translocation (breakage and new
union) between a mouse and a human chromo-
some, which may reflect the actions of a two-
strand-repairing ligase, as noted earlier.

Testicular feminization. During the year testicu-
lar feminization (Tfm), a fascinating rare genetic
disease, was critically reviewed. It is a disturbance
whereby an XY embryo, normally male, is switched
into a female pattern of development, but is sterile.
A similar condition in the mouse is firmly linked to
the X chromosome. S. Ohno (City of Hope National
Medical Center, Duarte, Calif.) and his colleagues
offered an explanation of the defect: the body cells
of the Tfm type appear to be unable to respond to
testosterone for lack of a primary protein receptor
for it. The Tfm "female” thus differs from normal
females as well as from males, both of whose
tissues do respond to male hormones.

—Joshua Lederberg

Obituaries

The following persons, all of whom died between
July 1, 1971, and June 30, 1972, were noted for
distinguished accomplishments in one or more
scientific endeavors. Biographies of those whose
names are preceded by an asterisk (*) appear in
Encyclopaedia Britannica.

“Adams, Roger (1889 — July 6, 1971). U.S. or-
ganic chemist and recipient of the National Medal
of Science, Adams was head of the University of
Illinois department of chemistry for 28 years. He
received an A.B. degree (1909), an A.M. (1910),
and a Ph.D. (1912) from Harvard University, and
then studied at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in
Berlin before returning to Harvard as an instruc-
tor. In 1916 he went to the University of Illinois as
an assistant professor, served as head of the de-
partment of chemistry and chemical engineering
(1926-54), and became research professor emeri-
tus in 1957. Adams and his students explored the
many methods of organic synthesis, determined
the structures of synthetic and natural products,
and discovered a platinum oxide catalyst for
further research in organic chemistry and bio-
chemistry. He investigated (1947) the structure of
marijuana, isolating and identifying cannabidiol,
and then synthesized a drug that was 70 times
stronger.

Among the many honors bestowed upon Adams
were the Davy Medal of the Royal Society (London,
1945), the Priestley Medal of the American Chem-

307

Obituaries

ical Society (1946), and the Perkin Medal of the
Society' of Chemical Industry (1954). He was
awarded the 1954 National Medal of Science for
his many years as the recognized leader in organic
chemist!^'.

Armand, Louis (Jan. 17, 1905— Aug. 30, 1971). A
French engineer and nuclear energy executive,
Armand was responsible for the reconstruction of

the French railway system after its almost complete
destruction during World War II. He had joined the
Compagnie des chemins de fer de Paris a Lyon et a
la Mediterranee (the PLM) in 1934, and with the
Nazi invasion of France in 1940 became a member
of the railroad underground intelligence network,
and subsequently was captured by the Gestapo.
Released in 1944, Armand returned to the railroad
and five years later was named director of the
nationalized rail system, the Societe Nationale
des Chemins de Fer (S.N.C.F.). He was assigned to
rebuilding the lines and converting them from
steam to electric power.

In 1958 Armand resigned his directorship to
serve a two-year term as president of Euratom (the
European Atomic Energy Community). He was the
author of works on geology and mining, on trans-
portation, and on the construction and unification
of Europe. Some of his better known writings
include: Plaidor pour I'avenir ("Plea for the
Future ), published in 1961, and with Michel
Drancourt Le Pari europeen (‘The Wager for
Europe") published in 1968.

Babakin, Georgi N. (1916— Aug. 3, 1971). Soviet
space expert, believed to have been involved in
the design and production of Soviet automatic
space probes, Babakin was credited with having an
important role in U.S.S.R. space technology and in
the study of the moon and of the planet Venus. He
undoubtedly contributed heavily to the construc-
tion of the unmanned Lunokhod 1 moon rover and
of the Venera 7 space probe.

Babakin began his career in 1930 as a radio
technician and by 1949 was actively involved in
Soviet aircraft and space technolooy. Although
unlisted, he was presumed to be a corresponding
member of the Soviet Academy of Science.

Bernal, John Desmond (May 10, 1901 Aug.

30. 1971). British physicist and natural philosopher
Bernal was also a crystallographer and helped
establish the foundations of molecular biology He
ser^'ed as professor of ph>-sics at Birkbeck College
University of London, from 1937 until 1963. v.’hen
he became that institution’s first professor of crys-
tallography. a position he held until ill health forced
his retirement in 19SB.

During ^s undergraduate days at Cambri
Universuy Bernal wrote a paper that brought hi
esearch post to study crystal chemistry' at

303

Royal Institution. He returned to Cambridge in
1927 and began a series of investigations into a
wide range of scientific subjects, including the
taking of the first X-ray photographs (in 1933)
of a single protein crystal (pepsin). His works
include The Social Function of Science (1939),
Freedom of Necessity (1949), Science in History
(1954), World Without War (1958), and Origin of
Life (1967). Bernal was a fellow of the Royal
Society and a recipient of the 1953 Lenin Peace
Prize.

Blegen, Carl V/. (Jan. 27, 1887— Aug. 24, 1971).
U.S. archaeologist, Blegen was professor of clas-
sical archaeology at the University of Cincinnati
from 1927 until 1957, when he became emeritus
professor: he also served as head of the classics
department from 1950 until 1957. Blegen led many
expeditions in search of the site of the ancient
city of Troy, and in 1939 discovered the palace
of Nestor. King of Pylos. At that site a number of
tablet fragments in Linear B (Mycenaean) Script
were found.

Blegen was a fellow of the British Academy,
a member of the Archaeological Institute of Amer-
ica, and a winner of the gold medal from the Soci-
ety of Antiquaries of London. He was the author
of several books, including six volumes on Troy
and the palace of Nestor.

*Bragg, Sir {\VlIIiam) Lawrence (March 31. 1690
— July 1, 1971). British physicist Sir Lawrence
Bragg was joint recipient (with his father Sir Vril-
liam) of the 1915 Nobel Prize for Physics, awarded
for their discovery of the method of determining
the structure of crystals by the use of X ra>'s. Sir
Lawrence was Fullerian professor of chemistry'
at the Royal Institution from 1953 until 1965, and
its director from 195^ until 1966. He became a
fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 191-.
after having produced an original work on the
structure of crystals: from 1919 until 1937 he
served as Langworthy professor of physics at
Victoria University of Manchester, and then as di-
rector of the National Physics Laboratory (1938).
and Cavendish professor of experimental physics
at Cambridge University from 1938 until 1953.

Bragg did fundamental work on the structures
of metals and minerals and developed new tech-
niques for the study of X-ray diffraction. From
1954 he concentrated his efforts on the study of
the structure of proteins. He became a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1921. He was the author of The
Crystalline State (1934), Electricity (1935), and
Atomic Structure of Minerals (1 937). With his father
he wrote X-Rays and Crystal Structure (1915).

Buu Hoi, Prince (1917— Jan. 28. 1972). A Viet-
namese physicist, Buu Hoi was head of the ffa-
tional Research Center of the French Radium

Obituaries

V/ide V/orld

Edward C. Kendall

Institute (the Curie Foundation), and a pioneer in
radioiogical cancer research. In 1957 he dis-
covered 3-4-9-10 dibenzpyrene, a chemical
substance in cigarette smoke that caused cancer
when injected into mice.

Fesenkov, Vasiliy G. (1889 — March 12, 1972). A
Soviet astronomer, Fesenkov was an early investi-
gator of zodiacal light, a nebulous glow observed
in the west after twilight and in the east before
dawn. Fesenkov was chairman of the Soviet
Committee on Meteorites and, from 1935, a full
member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, also
serving as editor of the academy s astronomica
journal.

Gilbreth, Lillian Moller (May 24, 1878— Jan. 2
1972). U.S. industrial engineer who pioneered
in time-motion studies, Gilbreth was the inspira-
tion for the popular book Cheaper by the Dozen.
The book, written by her two oldest children
Frank Gilbreth, Jr., and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey
and published in 1948, recounted the parents
methods of applying their knowledge of industri^
management to the running of the household an
family of 12 children.

Gilbreth received her B.A. degree ,5

University of California in 1900, her M.A. ’

and her Ph.D. from Brown University in 1915. in
1924, upon the death of her husband, she took over
his consultant firm and continued its success u
management. As consultant to the Institute o
Rehabilitation Medicine (at the New York Univer-
sity Medical Center) in the early 1950s. she set up a

Lillian Moller Gilbreth

program to augment the capabilities of disabled
homemakers, incorporating features to accom-
modate workers in wheelchairs or on crutches.

*Kendall, Edward Calvin (March 8, 1886— May 4,
1972). U.S. chemist and Nobel Prize winner,
Kendall was visiting professor of chemistry at
Princeton University from 1951. Prior to his
appointment at Princeton he headed the Mayo
Clinic biochemistry section for 37 years, and served
as a professor in the graduate school of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota from 1921 until 1951.

While at the Mayo Clinic, Kendall succeeded in
isolating the hormone of the thyroid gland (thy-
roxin), used to correct glandular deficiencies and
permit normal growth in human beings. In 1930
he began his extensive studies on the chemical
nature, physiological activity, and synthesis of
adrenal cortex hormones. By the end of the 1930s
he had isolated six of the gland's hormones and
named them Compounds A, B, C, D, E, and F—
E later became known as cortisone. Further in-
vestigations led to the identification of the chem-
ical structure and composition of the compounds,
and subsequently to a partial synthesis. Not until
1948, however, was the synthesis of E produced in
enough quantity for human experimentation.

For this work on the adrenal cortex compounds
and the resulting large-scale production of cor-
tisone and hydrocortisone, Kendall (with P. S.
Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein) received the 1950
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Other
awards bestowed upon Kendall included the Lask-

309

Y.'de Y.'o'H

//ana Goeppert S/.ayer

er Award of the American Public Health Associa-
tion and the Kober ^':edal of the Association of
American Physicians.

Lynch, VAIliam A.(June21. 1892— Feb. 14, 1972).
U.S. physicist and expert on earthquakes. Lynch
WES emeritus professor of phj-sics at Fordham
University. He taught at Hew York Universit)- a
number of years before going to Fordham in 1937.
As assistant director of the seismolooical labora-
tory at Fordham. Lynch came to be recognized as
an Euthorit)' on deep-focus earthquakes and the
analysis of earthquake waves.

MacLeod, Colin Munro (Jan. 28, 1909— Feb. 13,
1972). A U.S. microbiologist. MacLeod was a re-
search professor on the fEcult>' of New York Uni-
versitj’ s School of Medicine when, in 1953, he was
ar^ointed deputj' director of the White House
nice of Science and Technology. After ieavino
l^Eshmgton m 1955 he returned to New York
University and remained there until 1970. v.-hen ho
^sumed the presideno- of the Oklahoma Medico!
Research Foundation. J.tacLeod pioneered in
immunology, working in the field of bacforial
geneucs concerned with phage viruses. His' re-
forms of treatment for all

jorms of pneumonia.

Goeppert (June 28, 1905-Feb
20 19/2). German-born U.S. theoretical phvsicis*

p-5s K a-hl' U = professor oi

Pn>-siK a. .he UniversiWof California at S:=n D-''d

•'o-"s pS°

-OnS a. Johns HopKins University (1930-3*9) and

Columbia University (1939-/t5). During 19^5-53
she was a professor at the University' of Chicago
and at the Enrico Fermi Institute of NuclearSludies
(under Enrico Fermi), at the same time serving as
senior physicist at the Argonne National Labora-
tories. near Chicago.

Early investigations into theories of nuclear
structure came into sharp focus for Mayer in 19^5
as she discussed her work v.'ith Fermi. Kerthinking
led to the explanation that a measured spin of a
nuclear particle could correspond to one of h’.'O
different orbits, making possible a description of
the nucleus in terms of orbits of single particles.
Mayer then worked out a "shell mode!" of the v.ay
in v.’hich nuclei absorb neutrons in high-energy
phy-sics. This work paralleled that of J. Hans D.
Jensen, who at that time was working at the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg. The ti'/o scientists met in
1950 and collaborated on a book ad\'ancing their
theories. Their investigations brought Mayer and
Jensen the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physics (v.'hich
they' also shared v.'ith Eugene P. Vrigner).

Sampsonov, Nikolai Nikolayevich (1905 — 1971).
A Soviet scientist. Sampsonov's promising Kreer
was stifled because of his outspoken criticism of
the Stalinist bureaucracy. In the 1930s he worked
for the Directorate of the Northern Sea Routes and
WES in charge of prospecting for valuable arctic
mineral deposits. During World War II he was en-
gaged in scientific work, also seeing action cn the
Leningrad front

In 1956 Sampsonov published Thinking AJouh.
an attack on Stalin and a cal! for the return to
Leninist democracy. For this he was arrested and
confined in a special psychiatric hospital v.me.-e
he remained for eight years, refusing to plead in-
sanity. After repeated threats to his health and
family Sampsonov finally capitulated and v.as
discharged with a pension. In 1950 he and S. A.
Poddubny were ev.-arded the Stalin Prize for de-
signing a new ty'pe of gravimeter.

Samoff, David (Feb. 27, 1691— Dec. 12. 1971).
U.S. executive and the "father of American te'e-
vision," Samoff v.-as president of the Radio Corpor-
ation of America (RCA) from 1930 until 19i7 v.hen
he became chairman of the board, a posit'on he
held until retiring in 1970.

General Samoff (he v.'as a co.mmunications of-
ficer during World War II) launched T\' into Ameri-
can homes when he made a persona! ac.oearance
before the television cameras at the f.'ew York
World's Fair in 1939.

'Tiselius, Ame V/ilhelm Kaurin (Aug. 10. 1992—
Oct 29. 1971). A Swedish chemist and reciolent
of a Nobel Prize. Tiselius joined the faculty of the
University of Uppsala in 1925. He was ass'oned as
an assistant to T. Svedberc of the Institute of P.hysi-

310

Photography

cal Chemistry and in 1930 became a lecturer in
chemistry. After several years of study at Princeton
University, and work at the Rockefeller Institute
in New York City he returned to Uppsala in 1938 as
a professor in biochemistry.

Tiselius was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chem-
istry in 1948 for his discoveries concerning the
complex nature of the serum proteins. This work
on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis in-
cluded the development of a system for moving
large molecules (such as proteins) through a
solution by means of electricity. The two instru-
ments he devised, the "Tiselius apparatus," have
been utilized by scientists everywhere to separate
proteins into their many complex chemical com-
pounds.

*von Bekesy, Georg (June 3, 1899— June 14,
1972). Hungarian-born U.S. physicist and Nobel
Prize v/mner, von Bekesy was professor of sensory
sciences at the University of Hawaii from 1966. He
received a Ph.D. in physics from the University
of Budapest in 1923 and became an engineer with
the Hungarian telephone system, where he began
his research work into the mechanism of hearing.
In 1947, after several years at the Royal Caroline
Institute in Stockholm, von Bekesy went to the U.S.
and joined the faculty at Harvard University. His
continuing experiments led to the discovery that
the human ear distinguishes the pitch of sounds in
the cochlea, the part of the inner ear shaped like a
snail shell, and that the cochlea works as a sort of
microphone to convert the mechanical energy of
sound into electrical impulses received by the
brain. For this major research concerning the ear
and for his pointing the v/ay for advances in the
diagnosis and correction of damaged hearing,
von Bekesy was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine.

Photography

The year 1971-72 was one of outstanding progress
in photography. In particular, research on the
theory of sensitivity, emulsions, sensitizers, and
color formers resulted in a tremendous improve-
ment in color films, together with simplification of
the processing. Research on black-and-white
films also progressed, resulting in the production
of recording films of greatly enhanced speed, with
low grain and high definition, and direct positive
films using a single stage of development.

While amateur photography continued its steady
growth of over 5% a year, the largest amount of
photographic material was still consumed in the
nonamateur fields. Remarkable growth was shown
in medical and industrial photography, micro-

filming, audiovisual uses, and the application of
photography to the fields of graphic arts and
reprography.

Silver and nonsilver processes. Most photo-
graphic processes rely on silver; in the U.S. the
photographic industry is second only to the U.S.
mint in silver consumption. In recent years the
price of the metal has undergone extreme fluctua-
tions, ranging from a high of $2.57 an ounce in
1968 to a low of $1.30 in October 1971. As of 1972
it showed a slow upward trend, leading to in-
creased interest in silver-recovery systems. A num-
ber of such systems were proposed for photo-
finishers, radiographers, motion-picture and
microfilm processors, and other large producers
of waste silver. A further impetus to research in
this field stemmed from the general interest in re-
cycling of wastes in order to minimize environ-
mental pollution.

Prompted in part by the high price of silver,
considerable investment was being put into re-
search on nonsilver photographic processes. As
of 1972, no satisfactory substitute for silver in
conventional photographic uses had been found,
although nonsilver processes had been adopted
for special uses, such as electophotographic sys-
tems for document copying, diazo and vesicular
systems for microfilm duplicate prints, and photo-
polymer systems for printing plates and so-called
photofabrication.

Practical photography. Nine years after the
introduction of its highly successful Instamatic
cameras, Eastman Kodak Co., in March 1972,
introduced the Pocket Instamatics, a series of five
1 X 2 X 5 in. cameras capable of being carried in
a pocket or purse. The drop-in cartridges are
loaded with Kodak Ektachrome-X and Koda-
chrome-X films, a Verichrome pan, and a specially
developed Kodacolor II film for color negatives.
Color prints are 3Vz x 4 V 2 in., larger than the 3X
prints made from normal Kodacolor negatives and
of comparable quality. The slides are 30 mm square
in plastic mounts. Kodak announced that it would
license other manufacturers for production of the
new series.

In September 1971 Kodak started to sell its new
XL movie cameras and Ektachrome 160 Super 8
film in cassettes, permitting motion-picture pho-
tography indoors with existing light (XL). This was
made possible by basic changes in camera design,
including a specially designed high-aperture lens
and an opened-up shutter. With the new film, the
system gives 24 times the light-recording power of
previous systems, and movies can literally be taken
by candlelight.

Considerable work was being devoted to video
cassette systems, in which a video cassette player

311

Courtesy, Kopf, Siemens AG, Munich, Germony

Device for making speckle
interferograms, photographs
that accurately measure the
tiniest displacements of moving
objects, is at the right. Coherent
light of a laser is used because
it causes speckling when
reflected by a dull surface and
the amplitude of a displacement
can be determined by examining
the pattern of the speckles.

The patterns below indicate
a large (left) and a small (right)
displacement.

is attached to a conventional television set to give
a display on the TV tube. Rapid progress in the
held had been hampered by such factors as cost,
ack of standardization, copyright and union prob-
ems, and programming uncertainties. In 1971
however. Kodak demonstrated a feasibility model
ot a system using conventional Super 8 film car-
tridges in a special player attached to the antenna
ot a TV set, and Fuji announced the CVR (Cine Video
Recording) system for its straight-8 movie film.

A number of new Polaroid Land Cameras were
introduced in 1971. including a 400 series of fold-
ing pack cameras featuring a "Focused Flash"

T h" front of

he flashcube according to the distance of focus-
ing, a camera for making color close-uns- anri =
camera for taking square pictures. A new Polaroid
312

pocket camera was demonstrated to stockholders
at the company's annual meeting in the spring of
1972. It was claimed that the new systems made it
unnecessary to stabilize the prints by coating
them.

In 1969 Kodak and Polaroid had announced a
new agreement whereby Kodak would continue
to make color negative film for Polaroid and could
make color film packs for Polaroid cameras. In
1971 Kodak announced intensification of research
on its own in-camera color system, including new
color chemistry and coating techniques and new
portable cameras. Meanwhile, Polaroid, which in
the past has contracted out much of its manufac-
turing to other firms, was developing its ov/n
chemical-, film-, and apparatus-manufacturing
plants.

Use of color photography continued to expand;
about 80% of all still pictures were in color and
some 70% of these were color prints, while prac-
tically all amateur movies were in color. Further,
the number of hobbyists making their own color
prints v/as growing. Important advances in color
photography, besides the Kodacolor II negative
film for the Pocket Instamatic cameras and Ekta-
chrome 160 for the XL movies, included special
high-quality color film for photomicrography: high-
definition film for high-altitude aerial reconnais-
sance; Ektachrome duplicating film; and three-
solution processing for Ektaprint paper for printing
from color negatives and new Ektachrome process-
ing machines, both for photofinishers.

The Kodak Ektaprint three-solution chemical
system and processing machines inaugurated a
trend toward simplification of color processing,
partly by combining bleaching and fixing stages
in one solution. Associated with this system was a
process that regenerates the bleach-fix (blix) for
further repeated use and recovers practically all
the silver.

For the professional color finisher, the Veri-
color system, using a special color processor
and new chemistry, permitted processed and dry
color negatives to be produced in 11 minutes, com-
pared with the one-hour wet time previously
needed. For color printers, there were attachments
that scanned incoming negatives with photosen-
sors and set the printing exposures automatically.

Current trends. Active research was taking place
in the field of color xerography, and it was ex-
pected that a practical system would be available
v/ithin four years. New instant-picture cameras
were anticipated, not only from Polaroid but also
from Kodak and probably others. The advanced
amateur would probably do more personal dark-
room work, especially in color. The 8-mm video
cassette systems could well provide an important
stimulus to the expected boom in cable TV.

In education, the entire audiovisual field was ex-
pected to undergo rapid growth, not only through
Super 8 films but also in slide-sound presentation
and a variety of other display techniques. In the
fields of medical, dental, and industrial radiog-
raphy, in microforms, especially micropublishing,
and in the graphic arts, the systems approach-
film, chemistry, processor, and auxiliary equip-
ment regarded as a system — was finding rapid
acceptance.

In printing, the trend to phototypesetting con-
tinued. There was increased use of scanners to
give color-corrected color separations and of
photographic methods for producing lithographic
printing plates.

—Walter Clark

Physics

The discovery of the heaviest element occurring in
nature, an isotope of plutonium, was among the
outstanding developments of the past year in
physics. In high-energy physics new facilities at the
U.S. National Accelerator Laboratory and the
European Nuclear Research Laboratory were being
used to probe the world of subatomic particles.

High-energy physics

Intersecting storage rings. A number of impor-
tant experiments were carried out at the new
intersecting storage rings (ISR) of the European
Organization for Nuclear Research laboratory at
Geneva. The ISR consists of two beams of protons,
each with a maximum energy of 26.5 GeV (billion
electron volts), circulating in opposite directions.
These beams intersect at points about the storage
rings. The energy of the head-on collision of such
protons is 53 GeV, which is equivalent to the
collision between a 1,500 GeV proton and a sta-
tionary proton. The ISR thus provides energy
7.5 times higher than the 200 GeV achieved at the
National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, III.
(However, large classes of experiments are not
accessible to the ISR, since collisions when the
two proton beams pass through each other are
rare. Even counting all its protons, the ISR beam
is an excellent vacuum.)

Two ISR experiments are of special interest.
Elastic proton-proton scattering shows an angular
distribution which scales to that at lower energy.
(A collision is elastic when no energy of motion is
lost to other forms, such as the creation of par-
ticles.) That is, one looks at this distribution with
respect to "momentum transfer” to judge whether
there has been a change in apparent particle size
compared to that of the protons at low energy.
The proton’s apparent average diameter was ob-
served not to change with energy. It had been spec-
ulated that particle production, through conversion
of energy into mass, would lead to an ever-increas-
ing apparent diameter with increasing energy for
strongly interacting particles. A classic geometric
view of fixed particle size, seems, instead, to be
indicated by the experiment.

The second experiment also suggested a simple
geometrical view. In this experiment just one par-
ticle was observed of the many that generally result
from a high-energy collision. If the "Lorentz con-
traction" of special relativity is taken into account
for the initial protons, and special relativity is also
taken properly into account for the observed
particle, a prediction can be made for the rate of
particle production. This prediction was con-

313

Physics

Distribution of strength of interaction, or opacity,
of a proton can be determined during interaction
with another proton of high energy. Experiments
reveaied that the proton's opacity distribution does not
expand with increased energy (dotted curve) but is
independent (soiid curve), though a siight effect
(dashed tine) might be present.

firmed in a striking manner by the experiment: the
probability for producing a particle of a particular
velocity, when expressed in a certain scaling
orm, was predicted to be independent of the total
energy. This was confirmed for a number of ener-
gies (quoted for a proton on a stationary proton
target) of 12 GeV up to 1,500 GeV.

A number of other new and important results
are expected from experiments with the ISR.
These include the numbers of particles produced
n collisions at various energies and a very exten-

varLt for producing each of a

variety of particles at various velocities

Amplitude analysis. The general technique for
discovering properties of nuclear particles is to
with^ particles associated

Sna S""’ information

pSesTp scattering of

data is "amplitude analysis.” Observables (per-
ceptible events), according to the quantum theory,
are always products of two amplitudes, for ex-
ample or AB. Amplitude analysis involves
extracting the amplitude (A or B), which can be
difficult. For example, if A^ = 4, the amplitude is
ambiguous; A = ±2. But as improved information
has become available, it has gradually become
possible to remove these ambiguities for certain
cases of scattering.

An exciting development in this subject oc-
curred during the year: the determination of the
amplitude for pi-meson nucleon scattering at a
high energy (6 GeV) over a range of small angles.
This amplitude analysis was not intended to reveal
any "states.” (States are not expected to be ob-
served at this energy because they may be too
broad and overlapping or, perhaps, because there
are no more states at this energy.) However, in the
case of the two-nucleon problem studied in the
1950s, although no states were found, amplitude
analysis had made possible the detailed deter-
mination of the two-nucleon potential— the force
that holds atomic nuclei together. The high-
energy amplitude analysis of the pi-meson nucleon
system might have equally powerful implications
for the behavior of strongly interacting particles
at high energy.

One possibility, about which the present analysis
is not yet definitive (complete experiments at other
energies are needed), is that the apparent particle
size is independent of energy, as also suggested
by the ISR experiments discussed above. But a
small amount of matter at a large distance from a
particle’s center may influence collisions at very
high energy; thus, although average apparent
particle size at high energy does not appear to
grow rapidly with increased energy, it is possible
that there is a small effect of this kind.

Deep inelastic scattering of electrons by neu-
trons. What is the neutron like internally? Does it
differ substantially from the proton? "Deep"
inelastic scattering of electrons at the Stanford
(Calif.) Linear Accelerator Center— collisions in
which the electrons are observed to lose a great
deal of their energy of motion to particle produc-
tion — confirmed that the proton should be thought
of as a composite system. That is, the proton is
made up of several, or many, parts. The neutron
should be similar.

New experiments on the neutron showed that it
is not identical to the proton, but the question is
whether the difference can be understood in terms
of electric charge. As a simple exercise consider a
"quark" model for a proton and a neutron such
that the proton is made up of three particles, called
quarks, with charges -f-%, -f%, and -Vs to total one

314

CourTesy, Physics Inrernationa! Co.

Physics

unit of positive charge, and the neutron is made up
of three quarks with charges +%, —Vs, and —Vs, so
that it is neutral. The probability of deep inelastic
electron scattering would be expected to be pro-
portional to the sum of the squares of the quark
charges; Vg -t- Vg -t- Vs = 1 for the proton and Vs -r
Vs -r- Vs = % for the neutron. Experiments to
demonstrate this were exceedingly challenging
both to perform and to analyze. The latest results
indicated a rate of scattering for the neutron that
is lower than the % predicted by this model.

National Accelerator Laboratory. Important
milestones were passed in the construction of the
accelerator at the National Accelerator Laboratory
during the year. Protons were accelerated to full
energy in the "booster ring,” and protons were
injected and accelerated to nominal full energy
(200 GeV) in the "main ring.” Despite these
achievements, there were serious difficulties,
especially with magnets in the main ring. Much
v/ork remained to be done before acceleration at
full current, or intensity, would be possible. The
accelerator, however, was expected to operate
effectively at a reduced intensity, thereby making

Very intense beam of electrons
moving at about the speed of
light is disrupted (top, flare
at left) shortly after leaving a
vacuum and entering a gas.
Electrons collide with the
neutral gas atoms and ionize
them. The positive ions almost
totally neutralize the negative
charges of the electron beam,
and the magnetic field at the
edge of the beam bends the
electrons sharply around. Below,
a tilted metal plate placed in
the path of an intense electron
beam causes the beam to
appear to "bounce” off without
actually striking it. The only
illumination in both
photographs was that produced
by the recombination of ionized
gas molecules in the path
of the beam.

possible a series of interesting experiments. See A
Gateway to the Future: THE WORLD’S LARGEST
NUCLEAR PROBER.

One of the early experiments was scheduled to
be a Soviet-U.S. collaboration on elastic proton-
proton scattering using a jet of hydrogen gas inside
the vacuum chamber of the main ring as the target.
This technique had been used successfully at the
Serpukhov accelerator near Moscow. Another
early experiment was expected to make use of the
hydrogen bubble chamber successfully moved
from the Argonne (III.) National Laboratory. With
the bubble chamber, studies were to be made of
the number of particles produced in collisions, and
of correlations among such properties of the
produced particles as velocity.

Neutron stars. High-energy physics seldom
makes a direct, as contrasted with a philosophical,
contribution to other subjects. A recent example of
a direct contribution is to the theory of "pulsars,”
pulsating neutron stars. To understand the state of
the condensed nuclear matter in such a neutron
star one must understand thoroughly the states of
nuclear matter at high energy. Recent speculations

315

Physics

on these states, their density, and their "elemen-
tary" as opposed to composite, character, were
being used by research physicists and astronomers
as a basis for constructing theoretical models of
the interior of neutron stars.

The key question in the investigation concerned
the role of the Pauli exclusion principle. The exclu-
sion principle states that two or more particles of a
certain type cannot occupy the same space. If one
visualizes a large number of such particles being
gradually pressed together, which mutual gravi-
tational attraction would cause to happen in a star,
the consequence of the exclusion principle would
be a rapid rise in pressure in order to prevent
particles from occupying the same space. The
exclusion principle does allow a completely dif-
ferent particle to occupy the same space, however.
In a neutron star the question concerns the series
of excited states of the neutron (particles like the
neutron but more massive). If these excited states
are fundamentally different particles from the
neutron itself, the exclusion principle does not
apply and the neutron star would be relatively
easily compressed. But if these particles are simple
cornposite systems they would then probably be
similar to the neutron, as discussed above in con-
nection with deep inelastic scattering, and a neu-
tron star would, therefore, be relatively incom-
pressible.

—Marc Ross

Nuclear physics

Some impression of the nuclear domain— how fai
man has progressed in his exploration of it and
how much remains totally unknown-is provided
by the accompanying figure. This is a map obtained
by plotting the number of protons (2) in each
variety of nucleus (nuclear species) against its
number of neutrons (W). In each atom the number
of positively charged protons in the nucleus is
balanced by an equal number of orbital electrons
with equal negative charge, so that the atom as a
whole IS electrically neutral. The number of pro-

IXh is in-

h numbers of neutrons associated

ri ff number of protons result in the

different isotopes of this element

c?ea^no 7 h ^ = in-

creasing 2. however, the electrostatic repulsion

Shif" H less

Sp increasingly are

those with more neutrons than protons^ If' the
nuclear domain is considered to have three dimen
s ons. reminiscent of a relief map. the insfabithv
of a particular isotope can be represented by its
316

elevation above some selected "sea-level"; there-
fore, on such a relief map the most stable species
lie at the bottom of a deep valley, the valley of
stability, which runs diagonally across the map. In
the figure the stable species are shown as the black
squares: in all of nature there are only approxi-
mately 300 of these.

Until late 1971, physicists and chemists always
stated, without question, that uranium — the ele-
ment with 2 = 92 — was the heaviest in nature. This
is no longer true. Darleane Hoffman of the Los
Alamos (N.M.) Scientific Laboratory and her collab-
orators succeeded in 1972 in showing that an iso-
tope of plutonium (2 = 94) occurs in nature as an
extremely rare component of a rare earth mineral,
bastnasite, from the Mountain Pass Mine in south-
ern California. This came as a complete surpirse
and provided important information that supported
those who believe that such heavy nuclear species
were formed in a supernova explosion of a giant star
somewhere near our galaxy about 5,000,000,000
years ago.

Since the early 1940s nuclear scientists have
made and studied approximately 1,300 artificially
radioactive isotopes; these fall within the inner
solid outline surrounding the stable species in the
figure. These 1,300 along with the 300 stable
species represented all that physicists knew about
the nuclear domain in 1972. Extrapolating from
these to describe the characteristics of all possible
nuclei is something like attempting to describe the
geography of the United States from a detailed
study of the floor of the Grand Canyon. Physicists
have really only begun to study the very lowest
levels of the walls of the valley of stability. Enor-
mous regions remain unexplored.

The continent of stability. Can nuclear scien-
tists say anything about the unknown regions?
One thing they have learned is that adding more
and more protons to a nucleus eventually will
produce a nuclear species that will disintegrate
instantly because of the electrostatic forces of
repulsion. If more and more neutrons are added
to a nucleus, a limit is eventually reached where
the additional neutrons can no longer be bound
and they will "drip" out of the nucleus. These tv/o
limits can be calculated rather well from current
knowledge of nuclear forces, and they establish the
upper and lov/er boundaries of the continent of
stability in the figure. In the case of very heavy,
proton-rich isotopes, a spontaneous fission pro-
cess competes with the emission of protons or of
alpha particles (two protons and tv/o neutrons very
tightly bound to give a helium nucleus, a frequent
nuclear decay product).

The continent of stability is a broad and unex-
plored one. Spanning it are the isotopes of calcium

Physics

from caIcium-31 to calcium-70; each isotope con-
tains 20 protons, but the numbers of neutrons
range from 11 to 50. Similarly, uranium extends
from uranium-195 to uranium-302 with 92 protons
in each isotope and neutron numbers ranging from
103 to 210. Of these 39 calcium and 107 uranium
isotopes, which are predicted as stable against
instantaneous disintegration, by 1972 only 24 and
14, respectively, had been discovered.

Fortunately, probes for exploring these new
nuclear regions were expected to be at hand soon.
G. N. Flerov and his associates at the Joint Nuclear
Research Institute laboratories at Dubna in the
Soviet Union calculated that if a uranium target
could be bombarded with a 2,000 MeV (million
electron volt) beam of uranium ions, the collision
would produce at least 6,000 different nuclear
species as compared to the 1,600 now known.

Quite apart from the great scientific interest In
exploring this new territory, the discoveries might
lead to valuable new applications. For example,
many more varieties of radioisotopes would be
produced. These radioactive nuclei have already
had a revolutionary impact on medicine. In almost
every application, however, the radioisotope has
been selected for its chemical or biological char-
acteristics— it had to follow and tag a certain chem-
ical species or process, or concentrate in a certain
organ, as, for example, iodine in the treatment of
human thyroid disorders. Having made this selec-
tion, however, the user was then very limited in the
radioisotopes of the selected element available to
him. At best, he selected the one that came closest
to giving the desired results while having minimal
unwanted side effects. All too frequently, if the
radioisotope had the desired radiation it had the
wrong lifetime or dangerous associated radiation.
With many more radioisotopes to choose from,
physicians could hope to approximate much more
closely the ideal isotope characteristics for a given
application. The new isotope iodine-131, as an
isolated example, was shown to be vastly prefer-
able to the iodine-133 previously used in human
thyroid therapy in terms of both its lifetime and
its unwanted radiations.

The islands of stability. The extent of the con-
tinent of stability in the upper right portion of the
figure remained unknown except that it shades
gradually into the surrounding oceans of insta-
bility. Possible outer islands of stability in these
oceans were predicted where Z = 114 and 126
(and possibly also Z = 164) and where, simultane-
ously, A/ = 184. There are no obvious natural pro-
cesses whereby the elements in these islands
v/ould have been made during the history of the
universe so that, even if stable, it is not surprising
that they have never been found. Collisions of mas-

Physics

sive chunks of nuclear matter, similar to the uran-
ium on uranium example described above, provide
a mechanism for the production of these very
heavy nuclei, and programs under way at Berkeley.
Calif., Dubna, Paris, and at Darmstadt, W. Ger.,
were directed toward their possible production.

Part of the interest in these potentially stable
heavy nuclei stems from the fact that the same cal-
culations that predict the possible long-term sta-
bility of these new species also predict that when
they fission they might release 10 neutrons as com-
pared to the 3 to 4 in the case of the more familiar
fissile materials. This has potentially important
consequences in reducing the critical mass re-
quired to support a nuclear chain reaction, there-
by producing electric power from nuclear energy
more easily.

Excitations above ground levei. Thus far only
the actual surface of the continent of stability has
been discussed. It is traced out by the location
of the most stable, or ground, state of each nuclear
species in question. Each of these species, how-
ever, has many configurations lying at higher
excitations (greater levels of energy) above the
ground state; in terms of the figure, these would be
in the "atmosphere” above the continent. Until
recently, nuclear science concentrated on the
structure very close to the ground levels. This re-
flected both experimental and apparatus limita-
tions that made other studies difficult and also
a reluctance to tackle those higher, more tightly
packed, states until a better understanding of
the lov/er, and presumably simpler, ones was at
hand.

In recent years, however, major progress has
been made in moving up from the ground state to
more excited levels. In many nuclear regions —

around lead (Z = 82) for example— it was found
that the nuclear structure is much simpler than
had beert expected, with individual neutrons and
protons moving largely independently in well-de-
fined orbits much like those of the more familiar
electrons in atoms. Pioneering work on this region
was done by Nelson Stein and his collaborators at
Yale University. Groups at Copenhagen and at Los
Alamos found evidence for pairs of neutrons and
protons moving together as single entities and
making up whole new classes of states. More
recently, Rolf Siemssen and his collaborators at
the Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, Henri-
ette Mathieu-Faraggi and her collaborators at
Saclay, in France, and Roy Middleton and a group
at the University of Pennsylvania, found evidence
for yet another class of structures where four par-
ticles — ttvo neutrons and two protons— moved to-
gether in so-called quartet configurations. Pro-
ceeding in this way researchers were able to dis-
entangle what seemed to be a wildly complex sit-
uation into overlapping families of relatively simple
nuclear structures. This new work surveyed the
"atmosphere" of the nuclear domain up to an ele-
vation of approximately 10 MeV and covered hun-
dreds, if not thousands, of different energy states
in many different nuclei.

But what is the situation in the "stratosphere”
of the nuclear domain? The question of what hap-
pens to a nucleus as energy is continually pumped
into it has long been an open one. In the simplest
models, such as those that were remarkably suc-
cessful in the hands of Niels Bohr and John Wheeler
in explaining the phenomenon of fission, the nu-
cleus was likened to a liquid drop. When such a
droplet has energy added to it — is heated — its
components (molecules) move ever more rapidly

The "valley of stability" lor
atomic nuclei can be drawn by
plotting the number of protons
in each nuclear species against
the corresponding number
of neutrons. The heavy black
lines and dots in the center
of the valley represent the most
stable species. The solid
boundary lines show the limits
of stability, beyond which
the strong nuclear lorces would
cause instantaneous decay
ol a species. The region of heavy
man-made elements is defined
by the broken line at the upper
right: the circles indicate tv/o
potential man-made elements.
114 and 12B. that would be
islands of stability.

Science, General

Harry Seawell

A 2.5 million-v ion
accelerator developed by IBM
applies the techniques
of nuclear physics to analyze
materials and make new
electronic devices. Beams
of ions, giving off glows
characteristic of their
composition, are directed
at high velocities
to be embedded in silicon
crystals and thereby create
new devices.

under thermal agitation until some, on a statistical
basis, achieve enough energy to escape from the
drop altogether. They have been evaporated. Simi-
lar phenomena have long been observed in nuclear
science where neutrons having a familiar evapora-
tion spectrum of energies are frequently ob-
served. If this were all that happened, the nuclear
stratosphere would be dull indeed. But recently
Adriano Gobbi and his co-workers at Yale obtained
evidence for energy states near 40 MeV in silicon-
28: these states have a striking molecular structure
in which two well-defined carbon nuclei are bound
together by the exchange of an alpha particle. Also,
preliminary results on the capture of negative K
mesons in material such as nickel, obtairied by col-
laborating groups from Carnegie-Mellon Univer-
sity, Pittsburgh, Pa., and the Argonne National
Laboratory, provided evidence for the presence of
large nuclear subunits (for example, carbon-12
or beryllium-8) orbiting at a large radius from the
center of mass of the parent nucleus. At such large
radii they can be effectively unhooked from the
parent nucleus by the energy release from the
decay of the captured K mesons.

Heavy ion nuclear science. In a new frontier
area of the nuclear sciences, beams of heavy ions
(normally any nuclear species heavier than helium,
Z — 2) are used to initiate nuclear reactions. They
have the advantages of permitting the study of
reactions when large clusters of neutrons and pro-
tons are transferred between projectile and target,
of giving access to very-high-spin situations, and
of selectively focusing on the surface regions of
nuclei rather than upon their interiors.

In the areas of high spin, heavy ions allow the
study of states having spins at least 10 times higher
than ever before seen. Andrew Sunyar and his col-
laborators at Brookhaven National Laboratory,

Upton, N.Y., found in preliminary heavy ion studies
that in dysprosium-156, as the nucleus is spun
faster and faster, an abrupt and striking change
occurs in the moment of inertia (the sum of the
products of each mass particle of a body multi-
plied by the square of its respective distance from
the axis of rotation). The reason for this was un-
known, but the phenomenon provided a stringent
test for the current understanding of the micro-
scopic bases of nuclear structure.

— D. Allan Bromley

Science, General

In general, the basis for federal support of the
U.S. scientific endeavor has been the belief that,
out of its vast array, useful information will surely
emerge. Although few specific basic research
efforts will produce economically beneficial re-
sults, it is necessary to support the overall research
program because its value will be greater than the
total investment. Although no one could fully docu-
ment the relationship, it has been a commonly
held assumption that the substantial technological
superiority of the United States derives from its
leadership in almost every field of science. During
the year, however, doubts began to emerge.

A business survey published in February 1972
by the Morgan Guaranty Trust Co. of New York
reported:

While the U.S. still enjoys a sizable trade surplus in
transactions involving technology-intensive manufac-
tured products— such as chemicals, electronic equip-
ment, machinery, and transport equipment— a threat to
that surplus unmistakably exists. This is emphasized by
the fact that imports of such products grew more than
twice as fast in the 196Qs as exports. One of the most
visible manifestations of this, of course, has been the

319

Science, General

A photoelectron
spectrometer at the Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory of the
University ol California will be
used for chemical analysis of
atmospheric particulates as part
of an interdisciplinary
environmental research program
coordinated by the laboratory.

By mid-1972, 14 projects had
been funded by various
governmental agencies.

Courtesy, Lawrence Berkeley Loboratory, University of California

spectacular progress Japanese industries have made in
cracking U.S. markets for electronic products such as
calculators and television sets. But such other technol-
ogy-intensive industries as machinery producers also
have found themselves increasingly hard pressed to
maintain a competitive stance in domestic and foreign
markets.

New directions for R and D

In the White House the realization was growing
that the vaunted U.S. superiority in technology was
being challenged— not only by Japan but also by
West Germany and other European nations. Fur-
thermore, technological proficiency did not seem
to be of great help in solving such severe societal
problems as the deterioration of the cities, crime,
and the crisis in transportation. The result was a
rather fundamental shift in attitudes toward the
allocation of federal resources for the support of
science and technology.

A decade earlier the scientific community was
being asked to identify those fields of science that
would most benefit from increased support. Now
the question seemed to be: How should the na-
tional research and development program be
directed in order to solve societal problems and
restore the U.S. technological advantage in inter-
national trade? In addition, if the research and de-
velopment effort could provide a boost to the do-
mestic economy, that would be of great interest
to an administration concerned about rising prices
in a period of rising unemployment.

Searching for projects. Few appointments to
Washington officialdom aroused as much interest
and speculation among professional science-

policy watchers as that of William M. Magruder to
serve as special consultant to Pres. Richard Nixon,
effective Sept. 8, 1971. The initial announcement
was made in rather low key by an assistant press
officer at a routine White House press briefing.
Reporters were told simply that the former director
of the supersonic transport program in the De-
partment of Transportation would be working with
the White House "in the areas of research and
development which hopefully will lead to poten-
tial new technology which could help the United
States in our domestic and foreign export policy."

Magruder saw his mission as the identification
of promising technologies that would have the
potential of solving one or more of the nation's
pressing problems. In an effort to unearth these
new technological opportunities, as he called
them, he invited government agencies, private
organizations, and industries to send in their pet
ideas. Letters went out by the thousands. The
following is a typical example outlining the prin-
cipal concerns of the White House:

Dear Dr. :

On behalf of the President's Domestic Council. I am writ-
ing to solicit the views of your organization, or even the
individual views with respect to potential new technology
opportunities in the civilian sector and how the Federal
Government might stimulate these potential opportuni-
ties. Generally, these programs might include efforts
(Federal, private, or both) in areas such as desalinization
of water, advanced energy systems, low pollution auto-
mobiles. solid v/aste recycling, nev/ teaching methods,
new health care methods, new housing construction,
oceanographic exploration, means for incurring indus-
trial productivity, transportation systems, new law
enforcement methods, and so on. The objective is to sti-
mulate innovation in the civilian sector of the economy

320

Courtesy, F. E. Compton Compony

directed at basic nationai problems and/or economic
opportunities.

The study should apply at least these basic criteria to
each technology project or program before any increased
funding is recommended:

1. Importance; Project or program must relate (a) to a
significant and urgent national problem (b) to a signifi-
cant opportunity for economic growth, increased exports,
or technological leadership.

2. Pay Off: The cost/benefit ratio must be favorable. What
are the social and economic benefits— including impact
on balance of trade productivity and employment? What
will be the distribution of benefits among different in-
dustries and areas of the country?

3. Budget Impact: What are estimated long-term costs
over next six years of full systems costs?

4. Non-Federal Support: What is the feasibility and likely
maximum extent of cost sharing by industry? Can the
project be achieved through steps short of direct Federal
funding: regulation or deregulation, standard setting?

5. Potential Problems: Are there potential institutional
or economic barriers to acceptance and implementation
of the technology and how are they to be overcome? Are
there any undesirable side effects from the technology
and how are they to be dealt with?

6. Organization and Management: Assuming several
programs or projects meet the above criteria, what kind
of organization (existing agencies, new agency, or quasi-
public corporation) should be created (if any) or redi-
rected to carry out these programs?

A second area wherein I seek your counsel relates to
potential stimulus that could be offered to industry in
order to create innovation, higher productivity, etc. by
revision of tax laws, grants, prizes, etc.

A third area about which I would appreciate your ideas
concerns potential changes in anti-trust and patent law
practices to encourage innovation, higher productivity,
improved export business and greater overall employ-
ment . . .

Sincerely,

William M. Magruder

Special Consultant

to the President

As the months wore on and proposals for the
new technological initiatives began to pour into
the Executive Office Building, visitors returned
from the screening sessions with a sense of awe
at the size of the input. Piles of paper were said to
reach to the ceiling. Projects were coming in by
the hundreds, and some of them were accom-
panied by stacks of supporting documents three
feet high. Unfortunately, there appeared to be
few good ideas per pound of paper. Proposals
from government agencies looked like warmed-
over versions of ideas that had been turned down
several times by the Office of Management and
Budget or by lower echelons of review. Proposals
from industry looked as if the sponsors had good
reason for not investing their own money.

Can man and his culture survive only if he is
conditioned to want what best serves group interests?
Harvard psychologist B. F. Skinner (Beyond Freedom
and Dignity) thinks so, but his critics contend that
self-determination is vital and behavioral manipulation
violates man’s essential humanity.

Even though Magruder had attempted not to
raise expectations too high, the absence of any
significant reference to his mission in the presi-
dent’s message on science and technology on
March 16, 1972, evoked bitter expressions of dis-
appointment from much of the science press.
Science magazine called the technology plan
"vapid" and described the message as "little more
than reshufflings of existing rhetoric and known
policies” in "sad contrast to the optimistic hints
that emanated from the Administration last sum-
mer and fall.”

Nevertheless, many of those close to the exer-
cise refused to write it off as a failure. They argued
that its primary accomplishments had been, on
one hand, to convince top government officials
that there was a solid connection between R and D
and the quality of American life, and, on the other,
to educate them in the intricacies of dealing with
such issues. Said one budget official: "The politi-
cal officers in the Office of Management and Bud-
get began for the first time to understand the com-
plexity of the R and D process— its complicated
relationship to such things as balance of trade,
productivity, and jobs.” Magruder pronounced his
own valedictory; "I’m satisfied that we served the
top decision makers in at least bringing the con-

321

Science, General

flicts and hard questions out into the open

Beyond that the operation gave the Adminis-

tration a whole credenza of projects whose time
will come sooner or later."

A budgetary step upward. One reflection of the
administration’s growing awareness of the value
of a healthy R and D effort appeared in its proposed
budget for the 1973 fiscal year. Once again there
was a small but significant increase in the overall
figures, as contrasted with the abrupt leveling off
that had characterized the Johnson administration.
The total figure rose 9%, from S16.4 billion toS17.8
billion. The increase v/as almost precisely divided
between the military and ciwlian sectors.

Responses to the stimuli that had given rise to
the Magruder program were also evident in the
budget. The high-technology agencies were di-
rected to engage in actiwties with broader social
benefits. Thus the Atomic Energy Commission
(AEG) received increased funding to work on elec-
tric automobile batteries and cryogenic transmis-
sion lines, and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) was asked to work with the
Department of Transportation on a variety of
vehicle-development projects.

Most evident, however, was the effect on the
budget of the National Science Foundation (NSF)-
Although the budgeted figure of SS53 million repre-
sented only a S'i increase over the previous year,
the release of previously impounded NSF funds
brought the total available amount to SS74.7 mil-
lion, a far more significant increase of 12fs. In a
period of belt-tightening, few other agenci^
gained as much.

Of special interest were three new programs,
again related to the new emphasis. OneSSS million
item, the Experimental R & D Incentives Program,
v.'as to be conducted jointly with the National Bu-
reau of Standards. Its goal was to encourage in-
creased investment by the civilian sector and to
improve the application of R and D results. Another
S2.5 million v.'as requested for a National R & D
Assessment Program, to study how science and
technology contribute to such national objectives
as improvement of the qualit>’ of life, economic
grov.'th. productivity', and employment. A third
program. Institutional Grants for Research Man-
agement Improvement, would set aside S4 million
to encourage academic scientists and administra-
tors to study and experiment with new arrance-

ments for the management of research.

Once again, the overall NSF budget provide;
evidence that the administration preferred to speni
Its funds on targeted research rather than on pro
ducing scientists per se. There were almorit ni
funds for the continuing support of sci=PC=Vu
cation, and support for graduate students v.-a

Pigeons in 3. f. SKinners letfcrstory i-.svs been
centra! to his experiments in contrciieb behayior. By
setting vp "contingencies cf rsin!crcement~ unbar
which desired behavior is rev.’arded with food at cnrhcai
moments. S'-unner has cisoio'ined the pigeons to vi’ai<
figure eights, dance, and ptay Ping-Pong.

reduced from S20 million to S14 million. At the
same time, funds allocated to the ttvo-year-clo
NSF program in .Research Applied to National
Needs increased ■^3^4 to SBO million, mostly' under
the headings of Advanced Technology Applica-
tions and Environmental Systems and Resources.
Major emphasis v.-as placed on energy -R and D,
particularly solar energy. The largest single adci-
tion. however, v.’as in basic research: SS.7 million
for initial funding of a huge nev.’ radio astronomy
facility, v.'ith a Y-shaped interferometer v.fth 13-
mi arms for the placement of movable antennae.
An increase of S7S3 million in .R and D funds,
larger than the total NSF budget, v.-as granted to
the Department of Defense. The 9.5fi increase ’.'.-as
justified by the need to catch up on projects de-
ferred because of the Vietnam v.-ar and the appre-
hension that the Soviet Union was outsoending
the U.S. in this area. .NASA’s budget remaned
essentially level at S3.2 billion. A proposed grand
tour of the outer planets, dropped as not cost-
effective. was to be replaced by individual flights
to Jupiter and perhaps Saturn. Additional funds
were a’located to b.vo remaining Apollo flights,
three Sky-lab launches, and de-.-elopmenta! work

322

Science, General

on the space shuttle (see Year in Review: ASTRO-
NAUTICS AND SPACE EXPLORATION).

The AEG budget showed a slight increase, with
R and D emphasis on the development of clean
energy sources, such as the liquid metal fast
breeder reactor and controlled thermonuclear
fusion. Total federal funding allocated to the en-
vironment, scattered throughout a number of
agencies, rose only slightly— from $1.1 billion to
$1.2 billion— despite public interest in the problem.
Health-related research was programmed to in-
crease from $1.8 billion to $2 billion, mostly in the
National Institutes of Health; cancer research
received a substantial increase of $93 million, to
$430 million. The Food and Drug Administration
was also strengthened, with a jump from $38 mil-
lion to $56 million in research funds.

Technology assessment

The year 1972 brought a little closer to reality an
attractive governmental concept that had pro-
duced more words and fewer concrete results
than any similar idea in recent years. This was
technology assessment, a term possibly coined
and certainly made popular by former Representa-
tive Emilio Q. Daddario of Connecticut. (See 1971
Britannica Yearbook of Science and the Future,
Feature Article: PRIORITIES FOR THE FUTURE:
GUIDELINES FOR TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT,
pages 292-31 1 .) For more than five years Daddario
had insisted that Congress, whose acts of appro-
priation make possible the development of such

powerful new technologies as atomic energy and
supersonic flight, had a corresponding responsi-
bility to discern the future effects of these new
technologies on national life.

Despite the obvious difficulties involved. Con-
gress and much of the rest of the national leader-
ship had come to accept the need for some kind
of capability to predict the consequences of tech-
nological change. A number of programs to pre-
pare and evaluate methodologies for making such
predictions sprang up on university campuses,
notably at Harvard, Columbia, and Cornell. Of
these three, only Cornell remained, along with
smaller programs elsewhere. Congress, however,
had had the issue brought home to it with increas-
ing intensity. Much of the deliberation about fund-
ing the development of the supersonic transport
hinged on environmental consequences. The
National Environmental Protection Act calls upon
government agencies to predict the environmental
consequences of their activities. Rep. Mike Mc-
Cormack (Dem., Wash.) noted that in the 89th
Congress 9 bills were introduced to create new
committees with a special interest in science,
technology, and the environment; in the 90th Con-
gress the number rose to 27, and in the 91st, to
132.

The OTA proposals. The principal bills in the
92nd Congress concerned the establishment of an
Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). As origi-
nally written in the House, the proposal would have
provided for a policy-making Technology Assess-
ment Board, consisting of one senator and one

B. F. Skinner demonstrates the
laboratory apparatus that he has
designed to carry out
experiments in controlling
animal behavior. The wires are
connected to the animals'
cages and to the trigger
mechanisms that provide
rewards to reinforce the desired
behavior.

Ken Heymon

Science, General

representative from each major party, four private
citizens appointed by the president, plus the comp-
troller general, the director of the Congressional
Research Service, and a director of the OTA, who
would be appointed by the board. The principal
assignment of the office would be to contract
out studies that would provide Congress with
early warnings concerning potential consequences
of new technologies and with analyses of alterna-
tive measures. Its initial operating budget was to
be in the neighborhood of S5 million, and it would
have a staff of a dozen or so.

When the OTA bill came before the House, there
was little argument over the need for such advice,
but there v/as an unexpected reluctance to go out-
side Congress to find it. Although the framers of
the original bill conceived of the board as a device
whereby scholars and civic leaders could peer into
the crystal ball alongside Congress, House mem-
bers doggedly refused to admit that they could
profit from such assistance. Nor did they want the
staff director of the office to enjoy the privilege of
assigning studies. Congress has been elected to
draw up legislation, they argued, and it alone was
capable of deciding what kinds of information it
needed to carry out its function.

Since no other body had yet conducted a suc-
cessful technology assessment study of the magni-
tude needed by Congress, it could not be argued
that Congress would do a worse job. The bill sailed
through the House in its amended form. It was ex-
pected to pass the Senate easily, and probably in a
version very like that approved by the House.

The Safeguard controversy. An example of the
controversy that can arise when an outside group
attempts to assess a technology being promoted
by a federal agency occurred during the winter of
1971-72. The groundwork for the furore was laid
in a series of Senate hearings in the spring of 1969
dealing with the merits of the Safeguard anti-
ballistic missile system. In those hearings and in
various publications, a group of scientists had
argued that the supporting evidence for author-
izing the Safeguard system was faulty, and that
the system itself was neither sufficiently necessary
nor reliable enough to justify the funding that
would be required.

Much of the argument for and against the Safe-
guard system fits under the general rubric of oper-
ations research or systems analysis. Thus it was
that in November 1969 one of the proponents of
the Safeguard system, Albert Wohlstetter of the
University of Chicago, wrote to the council of the
Operations Research Society of America (ORSA),
asking it to

. . . appoint a panel to consider some aspects of pro-
fessional conduct during the ABM debate this last spring
and summer. . . . The conduct of the controversy ori the
ABM provides many outstanding examples of the viola-
tions of professional norms . - . Some basic issues in the
public debate concerned matters of analysis. Other issues
concerned matters of fact. . - . Many of these questions
both of fact and analysis can be ans^vered quite precisely
by a competent panel of operations research men. I be-
lieve the profession owes this to the public and the Con-
gress.

The ORSA council satisfied itself that Vi/ohlstet-

"Hov/s this lor recycling? Vie
get some heavily polluted air.
put it in an aerosol can,
and use it as an insecticide."

324

Science, General

ter, a member in good standing, had raised an
important issue. It agreed to conduct an examina-
tion and to accept, by and large, Wohlstetter’s
formulation of the issues. A committee of inquiry
was set up and, in an effort to avoid the appearance
of a kangaroo court, the president of ORSA invited
George Rathjens of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT), a chief Safeguard opponent
and Wohlstetter target, to designate a competent
systems analyst to serve on it. In a joint reply,
Rathjens and two other Safeguard opponents,
Jerome Wiesner, then provost of MIT and formerly
science adviser to Pres. John F. Kennedy, and
Steven Weinberg, also of MIT, argued that the
inquiry as formulated did not address itself to the
principal issues and was, in fact, loaded against
them. They also pointed out that, since they were
not members of ORSA, that body had no right to
evaluate their professional conduct.

Nevertheless, ORSA proceeded with the study
and in September 1971 reported its findings. "No
significant defects” were found in Wohlstetter’s
study of Safeguard, and much of it stood "as a
model for the professional and constructive con-
duct of a debate over important technical issues,"
but those opposing Safeguard were frequently
guilty of faulty methodology. Although some short-
comings were found in the testimony of the pro-
ponents, the report said, "they nowhere equalled
the cumulative mass of inadequacies compiled by
the opposition."

The report then addressed itself to the larger and
more difficult question of the ambiguous role of
scientific advocate:

There was present, throughout the debate, a complete
intermixture and confusion of the roles of the analyst and
the advocate. To the extent that advocating analysts
attempted to provide convincing arguments supporting
the validity of the conclusions and recommendations they
favored, the calm orderly presentation of the analysis on
vrhich these conclusions were based suffered.

Issuance of the report was followed by a contro-
versy between the original antagonists that often
became acrimonious. The fiery exchanges that
appeared in the letters columns of major national
newspapers and in the Congressional Record
failed to settle the fundamental questions concern-
ing the usefulness of the Safeguard system, but
they did serve to underline in bold strokes that, in
the absence of sufficient data, scientific confronta-
tions can be as inconclusive as those in any other
field of human endeavor— and as fierce.

In the arena of public debate

Despite the painful experiences of a number of
scientists who had thrust themselves into contro-

versy in public forums, and despite the determined
efforts of many scientific societies to avoid polit-
icization, the pressures on scientists to become
involved in political issues continued to grow.
Many of these pressures were exerted by younger
scientists, who shared with some of their genera-
tion a growing conviction that the scientific estab-
lishment had become, through indifference, an
instrument to consolidate the control of an already
powerful elite group. But in April 1972, George B.
Kistiakowsky, vice-president of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences and formerly science adviser to
Pres. Dwight Eisenhower, appeared before a meet-
ing of the American Chemical Society and argued
for involvement.

Looking to a future of increased population pres-
sures and depleted natural resources, of mounting
demands for a cleaner environment, and of rising
expectations in the less developed nations, he
declared:

We cannot deal with these problems and meet these
obligations without either a large decrease in our stan-
dard of living or the development of new technologies
for public use and benefif, based on scientific knowledge
that is still to come. That is self-evident. The real chal-
lenge is to design attacks on specific problems as they
arise and bring the resources of the scientific community
to bear on them. To meet these challenges, I now urge
far greater social and political involvement than hereto-
fore. In the past the practitioners of science have tended
to let others in the society decide how to apply their find-
ings. The results, as I in company with many others have
emphasized, have not been uniformly good. Together
with those especially knowledgeable in the problems of
society, we must now try to separate the good and bad
potentialities and then lend our weight to the good side.

Meeting the challenge. There appeared to be
many volunteers to take up the cudgels. The Feder-
ation of American Scientists, a Washington-based
national organization openly dedicated to lobbying
activities, primarily in the field of arms control and
disarmament, established a new program called
TACTIC (Technical Advisory Committees to In-
fluence Congress). Its announced goal was to
create, at the grass roots, a "nationwide network
of scientists and engineers” who would press for
favorable national policies — "first of all, by provid-
ing constituent pressure on their Congressmen,
and secondly by alerting the public, thereby gener-
ating political pressure for a change.” By February
1972 its organizers claimed that 850 participants
had signed up in 300 out of the country's 435 con-
gressional districts: their goal was to establish an
active working group in each of them.

As the federation set out to pursue its original
purposes more vigorously, a number of other
scientific groups were following courses of action
that had not been envisioned by their founders.
Members of the American Physical Society attend-

325

Stuart Ackerman

Stanford professor Witliam
Shockley confronts a group of
demonstrators dressed as Ku
Klux Klansmen who disrupted
his eiectrical engineering ciass.
Shockley became a controversial
figure in academic circles
because of his theories on the
relationship between race and
inteiligence. He requested
permission to teach a course
based on his thesis that blacks
suffer an innate inteiligence
disability as compared to whites,
but was refused after a faculty
committee found him
unqualified and not
sufficientiy objective.

ing its annual meeting in April 1972 found them-
selves voting on a constitutional amendment to
"shun all those activities which are judged to con-
tribute harmfully to the welfare of mankind" and
listening to a symposium on the significance to the
physical sciences of the conspiracy trial of the
"Harrisburg 7" antiwar protestors. The American
Chemical Society, considered by many to be the
most conservative group of its kind, confronted a
choice of presidential candidates that included not
only the two routinely selected by a nominating
committee but also an aggressively outspoken
retired industrial chemist named Alan C. Nixon.
Nominated by a discontented group within the
membership, Nixon quickly distinguished himself
by appointing a campaign manager, stumping for
improved working conditions for chemists, and
boldly advocating that employed members of ACS
be assessed to fund a political arm to lobby in the
tradition of the American Medical Association.
Nixon further distinguished himself from the other
candidates by winning, hands down. He was
scheduled to take office Jan. 1, 1973.

Even more flux developed within the engineering
societies, whose members were hard hit by cut-
backs in specific areas of research, notably space
and electronics. Although surveys conducted by
the NSF produced far less alarming statistics
among the group responding to a questionnaire, a
reporter for the Wall Street Journal estimated in
February 1972 that 35,000 engineers were jobless
and as many as 65.000 more were not able to work
full time m their profession. Whatever the actual
numbers, the technical societies were taking ex-
traordinary steps. Even before Alan Nixon took
office, the ACS set up an independent, nonprofit
corporation to establish a national pension system

that would permit members to take benefits with
them when they changed jobs. The American
Society of Civil Engineers sought to persuade
employers to accept minimum standards for work-
ing conditions as well as salary guidelines. With
an obvious reference to a burst of organizing
activity by major AFL-CIO unions, the executive
director of the ASCE said, "We hope employers
will voluntarily adopt these guidelines. We’re not
turning into a union, but we’re taking a more realis-
tic role— and maybe we can bring economic im-
provements through responsible leadership."

The argument over growth. Controversy within
the scientific community was not limited to insti-
tutional problems. Continuing along lines that had
been taking shape for several years, scientists
began to choose sides on a number of broad policy
issues in which science and technology played key
roles. Two of the most provocative issue-raisers
were an MIT engineer named Jay Forrester and a
young colleague named Dennis L. Meadows.

Forrester set the stage for controversy by fitting
a pet theory to the announced concern of a floating
international body of industrialists, statesmen, and
academics calling itself the Club of Rome. The
club, organized by an Italian industrialist named
Aurelio Peccei, had proclaimed its anxiety over
what it termed the "predicament of mankind’’— an
inexorable slide toward global catastrophe through
uncontrolled population growth and industrial
pollution. Forrester’s theory, v/hich he had es-
poused in his book World Dynamics, was that a
global model of the dynamic interactions between
world population, industrialization, depletion of
natural resources, agricultural productivity, and
pollution could be created through the use of an
intricate and complicated computer program.

326

Science, General

Meadows and a group of young associates took
it from there, cranking a variety of numbers and re-
lationships into a computer and reading the de-
pressing tapes that spewed out. To those who
questioned the accuracy of the data that went into
the machine. Meadows responded that it did not
appear to make much difference whether popula-
tion growth or agricultural productivity or pollu-
tion increased according to this projected curve or
that one; sooner or later the interrelationship pro-
duced a catastrophic dive in the population curve.
The only arrangement that forestalled such sudden
population decreases within 60-100 years was a
tightly managed equilibrium, in which not only
population growth but also industrialization and
agricultural productivity were flattened out or
forced into a negative growth curve.

Meadows’ wife, Donella, worked the results of
the study into a short book of simple and dramatic
statements, The Limits to Growth. A Washington
firm specializing in attractive social policy issues
joined the Club of Rome in promoting it. The result
was the most sensational display of publicity ever
granted to what purported to be a scientific state-
ment. It was not the publicity, however, but the
science in the statement that led to widespread
challenges by other scientists. Economists were
especially aroused; they charged that the method-
ology employed by Meadows and his associates
was faulty, especially in that no allowances were
made for policy adjustments by social and political

institutions as the effects of the predicted develop-
ments began to be felt. Meadows retorted that his
group was simply trying to develop a useful meth-
odology, designed to lessen the possibility that
the effects of disastrous policy (or nonpolicy)
might be felt too late.

At issue. Only slightly less attention was devoted
to the theories of the internationally renowned
behavioral scientist B. F. Skinner. In his Beyond
Freedom and Dignity, he argued that human be-
ings are hardly the free spirits of which the poets
sing. Instead, they are manipulated throughout
their lives by a series of operant conditionings
generated in their environment, over which they
have little or no control. His fundamental proposal
was that since we are all the objects of external
manipulation, we should try to order society so
that the manipulation is done by individuals
equipped to ensure that the greatest benefits
ensue.

Skinner was attacked with far greater ferocity
than Meadows— primarily because he offended
the humanists, who tend to be considerably more
articulate than social scientists. As in so many
instances in which controversies arise between
groups who speak essentially different languages,
the argument was rarely joined properly. Skinner
was attacked because he dared to suggest that
behavioral scientists were uniquely equipped to
manipulate human conduct and produce an or-
derly and placid society. He replied that we are now

Officials inspect the damage
caused by the explosion of two
bombs in the kiystron gallery
of the Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center on Dec. 7,
1971. The blasts damaged $45,000
worth of electronic equipment.
Most of the damage was
repaired within a week, and tests
of the accelerator proceeded
on schedule.

Sfucrt AcVermon

Science, General

already being manipulated by individuals— know-
ingly or unknowingly— who cannot always be ex-
pected to have the best interests of society at
heart. Why not consciously define and strengthen
that capability and turn it over to those groups now
thought to constitute our ethical and moral lead-
ership— the clergy, the humanists and scholars,
and the worldly philosophers?

The arguments raging around the Skinnerian
view of life were not notably reduced when the
retiring president of the American Psychological
Association, in a valedictory address to the annual
meeting, suggested that world political leaders be
tested for dangerous tendencies in conflict situa-
tions and appropriately medicated by psycho-
pharmacologists. (See Year in Review: BEHAV-
IORAL SCIENCES, Psychology.)

Two areas of scientific research were so ridden
with controversy that some scientists found them-
selves in the unusual position of suggesting that,
in certain fields, too much knowledge is a danger-
ous thing. One was the artificial development of
human beings; the other was the nagging question
of whether there are heritable differences in intel-
ligence linked to racial characteristics.

The first dispute arose from the work of Patrick
Steptoe and Robert G. Edwards in England. These
two researchers had succeeded in carrying the
human development process from fertilization of
a human ovum through several stages of cell fis-
sion to a 32-celled embryo, all within the glass
walls of a laboratory test tube. Despite the shock
that reverberated through the press when this
achievement was announced, Steptoe insisted that
he intended to push forward with his research. As
the next step, he was seeking willing mothers in
whose womb a laboratory-raised embryo would be
placed to complete the birth process.

Steptoe faced up to the outcry by pointing out
the benefits that might derive from his research,
particularly to women who might be able to bear
their own children but whose internal environment
was hostile to fertilization. But to the more forbid-
ding question — what would be done if the experi-
ment produced living monsters? — the scientific
team could only respond by asserting that their
proposal involved no more risk than the natural
act. (See Feature Article: TEST-TUBE BABIES.)

A larger question was posed by Leon Kass,
executive secretary of the National Academy of
Sciences Committee on Life Sciences and Social
Policy. Addressing not only the question of in
vitro conception but also such related questions
as cloning (producing an embryo from an indi-
vidual somatic cell of a single parent) and the pro-
duction of living chimeras (organisms carrying
genetic material of tv/o different species), Kass

328

asked whether such avenues of research should
be explored at all, given man's present state of
wisdom:

To have developed to the point of introduction such
massive powers, with so little deliberation over the
desirability of their use, can hardly be regarded as
evidence of wisdom. And to deny that questions of
desirability, of better and worse, can be the subject of
rational deliberation, to deny that rationality might dic-
tate that there are some things that we can do which we
must never do— in short, to deny the need for wisdom-
can only be regarded as the height of folly.

Contention over the relationship between hered-
ity and intelligence raised even higher waves in
academia. Indeed, when physicist William Shock-
ley, Nobel prizewinner, proposed that research be
undertaken to determine whether an alleged 15-
point deficit in IQ among American blacks was due
primarily to heredity or environment, the dispute
approached violence. Shockley, whose scientific
credentials rested chiefly on his contributions to
the development of the transistor, was at the center
of the storm. He returned again and again to the
assertion that blacks, as an identifiable genetic
group, suffered from an inherited deficiency in
intelligence as measured by the available standard
tests. Others, notably Arthur Jensen of Berkeley
and Richard Herrnstein of Harvard, also wrote in
this difficult area, but it was Shockley who ap-
peared to move further along the path toward the
promulgation of social policies based on his
assertions.

On numerous occasions he petitioned the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, of which he was a
member in good standing, to undertake or foster
the required research. Each time, the NAS flatly
declined his invitation or pointed out that a ma-
jority of its members thought the task to be impos-
sible. Then he appealed to his fellow faculty mem-
bers at Stanford for approval to teach a special
graduate course on "the dysgenic question: new
research methodology on human behavior, genet-
ics, and racial differences." In May 1972 the grad-
uate dean at Stanford notified Shockley that the
course could not be given. Shockley bowed to the
edict, but refused to bend in his beliefs. He retorted
publicly, "The flat human equality illusion that
thwarts objectivity is, in my opinion, far more
threatening to the future of the U.S. than was the
flat earth illusion to the future of Italy in Galileo s
day."

Even those who quarreled with the methodology
of Jay Forrester and Dennis Meadows could agree
that there were indeed some limits to growth. The
suggestion that there were also limits to know-
ledge was a far more disturbing thought with which
to end the year.

— Hov/ard J. Lev/is

Transportation

Transportation

A relatively poor year for many transport carriers
tended to slow down research and development
efforts by private industry but did not have that
effect on the U.S. Department of Transportation,
which accelerated its efforts in this area. The de-
partment continued to concentrate mostly on the
passenger field, especially urban mass transport
and the development of futuristic high-speed
passenger vehicles.

From a technological point of view, a major
change in transportation was the strong emphasis
being placed on the demands for greater safety
and environmental protection. This affected vir-
tually all modes of transport, and caused a growing
proportion of research and development to be
devoted to such things as antipollution and safety
devices, and noise suppressors.

To illustrate the across-the-board nature of this
challenge, airlines faced tougher engine noise and
smoke standards, as did trucks. Automobiles had
to meet new pollution and safety standards. Rail-
roads were confronted with newly imposed federal
track standards. Water carriers faced costly penal-
ties for spillages. Even the largely unseen pipelines

were facing growing opposition to construction
for environmental and safety reasons.

Aviation. There were signs that the trend toward
progressively larger jumbo jet transports might
have reached its peak for the commercial market
in the B-747, which experienced both mechanical
and load factor problems. Also, the even larger
C-5A, built for the U.S. Air Force, continued to have
airframe problems, which helped accelerate the
cost per aircraft from $28 million to about $56
million. No orders for the L-500 commercial ver-
sion of the C-5A were reported. In mid-1972 Luft-
hansa German Airlines introduced the B-747F all-
cargo version for service between New York and
Frankfurt; Boeing Co., makers of the B-747, hoped
that this would help them recapture some of the
canceled orders for this version. Another sign that
the B-747 might get a firmer hold in the cargo field
was an order by World Airways, a U.S. supplemen-
tal air carrier, for three B-747Cs, a convertible
version that could be switched quickly from
passenger to cargo service.

The McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 wide-bodied, tri-
jet began commercial service and, over-all, pro-
vided "generally trouble-free” service. Major
breakthroughs for the 230-to-345 passenger jet

A radical now design for a supersonic transport incorporating on elliptical pivoting wing was proposed
by Robert Jones of NASA's Ames Research Center. He claimed the plane would be relatively quiet,
prevent pollution of the stratosphere, and produce no sonic boom under normal atmospheric conditions.

Courtesy, NASA

Transportation

Henry Ford shaped modern industrial society
by creating in 1913 the
assembiy-line method
of mass production
in his automobiie
factory.

included engines that were much quieter than pre-
vious ones and that emitted virtually no smoke.
Having overcome their serious financial problems
through U.S. and British government aid, Lockheed
proceeded to build the L-1011 and Rolls-Royce
the engines, for this wide-bodied, tri-jet. Flight
tests of the plane appeared to substantiate claims
by its manufacturers that it would be the "world's
quietest jet airliner.”

The long-delayed European (France-West
Germany) A-300B, twin-engine Airbus finally got
the boost needed by receiving its first firm order
— from Air France for six aircraft. Deliveries of the
270-passenger, short-haul plane were scheduled
to be made in 1974. Other members of the Atlas
Consortium (Air France, Alitalia, Lufthansa, and
Sabena), along with Iberia of Spain, an associate
member, were considering ordering the A-300B
after completing a nine-month evaluation of it.

There were no indications that the U.S. would
resume its program to develop a commercial
supersonic transport (SST). Meanwhile, costs of
the Anglo-French Concorde SST continued to rise.
The cost per aircraft was expected to be more than
$31 million to holders of the initial 74 options to
buy. Even at that price, the manufacturers did not
expect to recover a major share of the nearly $2
billion committed to research and development on
the aircraft. Concern was also expressed that
rigorous noise and emission standards in the U.S.
might sharply limit operations of the Concorde to
and from U.S. airports.

Like the Concorde, the Soviet Union’s Tu-144
SST continued to be test-flown. The U.S.S.R. pre-
dicted that it would enter regular air service in
1974, although the commercial version was to be
designed to have a greater capacity than the three
prototypes, from 150 to 180 passengers compared
to the 120-passenger version being tested.

Supporters of vertical and short takeoff and
landing aircraft (V/STOL) received two setbacks
during the year. The U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation's Northeast Corridor study of passenger
transportation needs through the 1980s concluded
that V/STOL aircraft for high-volume, short-haul
travel "are not considered practical for application
during the 1970s," and that much more research
on them would be required for their use in the
1980s. Major roadblocks, according to the study,
were community opposition to the noise, air pollu-
tion, and the safety hazards that these craft might
generate. Also, American Airlines, which con-
ducted extensive operational tests of commercial-
type STOL aircraft and which evaluated proposals
for propeller-driven STOL aircraft from three U.S.
and Canadian firms, terminated its program. The
airline concluded that a propeller-driven, lift-

Transportation

augmented STOL aircraft "probably won't work"
for a trunk airline and would be "risky financially."

On the plus side for V/STOL aircraft was an
agreement by three major West German firms to
join in a 12-year development plan, with govern-
ment backing, to have a competitive prototype ve-
hicle ready by early 1982. Also, a joint Japanese
government-industry group was planning to de-
velop a 200-passenger STOL airbus, and the U.S.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration an-
nounced plans to build two test STOL transports.

Highway transport. As the May 12, 1972, dead-
line for a decision by the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency on imposing rigid statutory emis-
sion standards for 1975 autos came closer, the
number of opposing views and claims increased.
All major automakers stated that they could not
meet the deadline and needed another year for
further research and tests. Two major studies, by
special White House and Academy of Sciences
panels, both concluded the extra year was needed.
The White House panel criticized both proposed
pollution and safety standards for 1 975 autos, con-
tending that the public benefits would not justify
the higher additional costs, estimated at $873 for
1976 V. 1971 models~$350 for emission and $523
for safety devices. The other panel said that com-
pliance with pollution standards, while possible,
would be accompanied by the following; a need
for more costly low-lead gas, more expensive
maintenance, periodic reinstallations of antipollu-
tion devices, less engine power, and higher initial
costs of about $200 per car.

General Motors began pilot production of 60 gas
turbine engines for industrial and large truck and
bus use, with installations made on many vehicles
for over-the-road tests. Plans called for mass pro-
duction of the 325-hp engines starting late in 1 972,
building up to a rate of 50 per month. General
Motors estimated that the engines would cost
about 20% more than a comparable diesel engine
and consume more fuel (getting only 5 v. 7 mi/gal),
but would otherwise be less costly to maintain and
operate.

General Motors also reported "good progress"
in its development work on the Wankel rotary
engine, but said that reports that it might soon go
into mass production were premature. While the
Wankel is said to be quieter, smoother, and simpler
than the piston engine, and weigh only about one-
third as much, it uses as much as 25% more fuel
and has an imperfect sealing system. While not
much better than the piston engine in prevent-
ing air pollution, the Wankel is smaller and thus
allows more room for the installation of antipollu-
tion devices.

Three of four experimental safety cars were
turned over to the U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion for further evaluation and for 12 of the best
model to be produced at a later date. They were
designed to meet demanding goals, including sur-
vival in a 50-mph crash, but all proved to be much
heavier than present cars; and the cost, if sold on
the market, would probably be twice that of a
current-model family car, according to a General
Motors official.

Commuters to Washington, D.C.,
travel unimpeded by rush-hour
traffic jams on special highway
lanes reserved for buses only.
This test and another in New
York demonstrated time savings
of up to 30 minutes per one-way
trip. The U.S. Department of
Transportation granted $36
million for a similar project
in Los Angeles.

331

Transportation

Regina, Sask. (population 137,759), called its
six-month experimental "Dial-a-Bus" service a
"remarkable success," and it announced plans to
expand it from serving 18,000 residents to 60,000
by the end of 1 972 and to the entire city by the end
of 1974. In this system collection buses pick up
callers within 15 minutes for trips to waiting rooms
for regular bus service. Several smaller-scale tests
were being financed by the U.S. Department of
Transportation, including one in Camden County,
N.J.

The U.S. Department of Transportation con-
tinued to promote the use of exclusive bus lanes
and highways. It approved a $36 million grant to-
ward a $52 million project to build an 11 -mi bus-
way in the Los Angeles area for use by buses only
during rush hours over a two-year test period.
Similar projects involving approaches to New York
City and Washington, D.C., proved attractive to
commuters, with 35,000 using the former and
20,000 the latter daily— at savings of up to 30 min-
utes per one-way trip. The Department of Trans-
portation granted an additional $2.2 million for the
Washington project for 30 more buses and fringe
parking lots.

Pipelines. Another major U.S. oil pipeline was
completed and being filled for commercial service
in 1972. The 1,300-mi Explorer Pipeline moved
refined petroleum from the Gulf of Mexico to
Chicago via Dallas, Tex., Tulsa, Okla., and St.
Louis, Mo.

Despite an unprecedented amount of research
and planning to satisfy objections of environ-
mentalists, the Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. was
in 1972 still awaiting approval from the U.S. De-

partment of the Interior to proceed with construc-
tion of the 789-mi, 48-in. crude-oil pipeline from
the Alaskan North Slope south to Valdez, an ice-
free port on the Gulf of Alaska. One major road-
block was removed when Congress passed legisla-
tion settling century-old land claims of natives
of Alaska, thereby providing for rights-of-way for
the pipeline. In addition, a comprehensive, nine-
volume environmental impact report required by
law was submitted, and it did not appear to contain
any information that would call for rejection of
the project. Even if approved by the secretary of
interior, however, the project may well be delayed
further because of court action by environmental
groups. In the meantime, the estimated cost con-
tinues to rise, from an original $1.4 billion to more
than $2.5 billion.

A new concept in the movement of solid mate-
rials through pipelines was announced during the
year by Trans -Southern Pipeline Corp. The sys-
tem, called TUBEXPRESS, was designed to move
either packaged or bulk material through a large
pipeline in wheeled capsules that are propelled
by a moving column of air at essentially atmos-
pheric pressure. Flow-through pumps move the
air, and by-passes separate the vehicles from the
air column at loading and unloading sites. Since
the system does not require a vacuum, airtight
seals are not needed.

The capsules are equipped with flat endplates
at the front and rear that have a flexible surface
nearly the diameter of the pipeline, thus permitting
movement at nearly the velocity of the propelling
column of air. The vehicles themselves roll on load-
bearing wheels and have side-guide wheels to

Prototype of a monocab. one of
several possibilities lor a future
urban transportation system
exhibited at Transpo 72. passes
above an old trolley car. one of
the older forms of transportation
that were also on display.

332

W.df V/orld

Transportation

stabilize their movement through the pipeline.
Two-way traffic can be achieved by using a closed-
loop system. Loading, unloading, removing, and
inserting the vehicles in the air column can be
automated to the extent warranted.

Initial plans called for the use of such a pipeline
for the movement of mail and baggage over short
hauls, and the U.S. Postal Service is now evaluat-
ing the system. Backers claim, however, that the
concept has "virtually unlimited” potential as a
new mode of transport. A prototype was built near
Stockbrfdge, Ga., and was extensively tested.

Railways. To help speed up rail freight service
throughout the U.S., railroads introduced more
“run-through" trains that by-passed intermediate
yards between two distantly separated points.
Such service usually required cooperation by at
least two roads, especially when the same loco-
motives were used. These trains carried a variety
of commodities, as compared to unit-trains, which
carry only one commodity.

The number of products moving in long-distance,
shuttle-type, unit-train services continued to grow.
One sizeable potential market was the movement
of entire trainloads of modular homes, and initial
runs were successfully made under a program in
which the railroads and builders were cooperating
with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development and the General Services Administra-
tion. A study of expanded unit-train operations by
the steel industry in the Great Lakes area claimed
that savings of more than $585 million in capital
outlays and $83 million a year in operating costs
would be possible if such trains replaced the pre-
sent rail-ore ship system.

General Motors Corp., which shipped aboutthree
million motor vehicles by train in 1971, reported
that 10% of them were stolen, vandalized, or
damaged. The company foresaw the use of spe-
cialized unit-trains as the solution to this problem
and continued to work closely with the railroads
toward that end. General Motors reported that its
Vert-a-pak cars, which load 30 Chevrolet Vegas
per enclosed car in a nose-down position, proved
successful, with 183 now in use and 134 to be
added in 1972. It also said early in 1972 that ship-
ping Cadillacs by railroad in stacked containers
had virtually eliminated damage claims, and that
it was building 200 more containers and 50 rail-
cars to handle more cars.

The piggyback unit-train, carrying mostly truck
trailers but also containers, continued to grow, and
by 1972 approximately 115 such trains moved be-
tween U.S. cities, mostly in the midwest and north-
east. These nonstop trains covered from 400 to
500 mi in 10 to 12 hours, thus averaging about 10
times the mileage of regular-service freight cars.

Because of financial problems the railroads were
not able to put into effect their program to com-
puterize the control and utilization of freight cars.
The labeling of freight cars was virtually completed,
but the number of installed roadside scanners that
"read" the labels as the trains moved by them
remained smali. Aithough a number of the 62 rail-
roads that planned to use the computerized net-
work had installed their own freight car control
systems, the nationwide system was a long way off.
Immediate plans called for installing scanners in
the high-density Chicago terminal area, with the
many railroads serving it sharing the costs. If suc-
cessful, this may become the model for other rail
terminal districts.

The potential of fully automated railroad opera-
tions was pointed out by an announced agreement
to build such a train in Arizona to haul coal be-
tween mines and an electric generating plant. The
electric-powered train was being designed to
operate without any on-board crew and repre-
sented, according to an electrical industry spokes-
man, "a prototype of a modern electrification
concept for high-volume railroads on the North
American continent.”

While hard-pressed to hold operating losses to
a minimum, the U.S. Amtrak passenger-train ser-
vice did report continued success for its high-
speed, electric Metroliner Service between Wash-

A film of air supports this six-passenger Personal
Rapid Transit (PRT) car as it traverses a test
guideway in Denver. The vehicles, powered by linear
induction motors that utilize the metal strips
in the guideway, were demonstrated at Transpo 72.

Courtesy, Tronsportotion Technology, Inc.

Transportation

ington, D.C., and New York City. Amtrak reported
that annual passenger volume along this route in-
creased from 605,000 in 1969 to 1,635,000 in 1971.

About 40 countries, including the U.S., expressed
interest in Britain's entry in the high-speed pas-
senger-train field, the so-called Advanced Pas-
senger Train (APT). The British government
expects to put the APT in experimental commer-
cial service in 1975, and, after removing all flaws,
into the international market a year or two later.
The lightweight trains were designed to operate
at speeds up to 155 mph on existing rail routes
with minor alteration to the track and signaling.
High average speeds could be maintained around
curves because of a "unique steering mechanism.”
Backers claimed that the basic high-speed capabil-
ity of the APT was due to a new design that sharply
reduced the characteristic side-to-side movement
of railroad cars when operating at high speeds on
tracks.

Urban mass transit. The rapidly increasing num-
ber of research grants from the U.S. Department of
Transportation in the urban mass transit field were
beginning to produce useful results. One example
was the inauguration into rail transit service in
Cleveland, O., of a new car that featured Westing-
house Air Brake Co.'s pulsewidth modulation
propulsion. Made possible by a $1.3 million grant
from the Department of Transportation, the unique
propulsion system assured far faster, yet smoother,

starts and stops for improved passenger comfort
and safety. It also offered savings in power by re-
turning energy to the electric power lines while
braking and by the use of low-cost, more reliable
alternating-current motors instead of the usual
complex direct-current motors.

Another federal government grant of $7.4 million,
to be matched by New York State and private in-
dustry funds, was made to develop and test in
service eight combination gas-turbine/electric-
powered rail commuter cars, which the Department
of Transportation foresaw as the "trains of the
future for suburban rail commuters.” The dual-
powered cars were designed to provide greater
flexibility by being usable on both electrified and
standard track, thus providing commuters with a
one-seat, no-change ride between the city and
suburbs.

Another milestone in rail rapid transit was passed
when an eight-car train built by St. Louis Car for
New York City passed a required test of operating
20 hours a day for 30 consecutive days without a
breakdown. This cleared the way for delivery of the
remaining cars in a 352-car order. They were de-
signed to operate at speeds of 70 mph compared
to 50 mph with existing equipment.

Boeing Co. and Bendix Corp. were selected to
help build the "Personal Rapid Transit” system in
Morgantown, W.Va. It was to consist of fully auto-
mated transit cars that would link West Virginia

New Chevrolet Vegas are shipped from the GM Assembly Division plant at Lordstown, O., by a unique
method known as Vert-a-pac. Each Vert-a-pac railway car carries 30 Vegas nose down and is completely
enclosed to protect the vehicles against damage during transit.

Courtety, Chevrotef W.ofor Divni'on, Geferot Motors Co^oro*<on

Transportation

University’s two campuses, carrying passengers
at speeds up to 30 mph. The rubber-tired, electric-
propelled cars were to operate on a guideway,
mostly elevated. Boeing was to design and con-
struct prototypes of the cars, and Bendix would
design and develop the automated control and
communication system. The first section of the
system was scheduled to start experimental opera-
tions by the end of 1972, with completion in 1974.

Water transport. While the trend toward con-
struction of super oil tankers continued, even
greater interest was being expressed in the need
for specialized ships to haul liquefied natural gas
(LNG), because of the rapidly declining supply of
natural gas in industrialized nations including the
U.S. A special Presidential Commission on Ameri-
can Shipbuilding estimated that up to 100 LNG
tankers would be needed in the near future for U.S.
requirements alone. While 14 such ships, mostly
of smaller size, were in service, the new ones were
to be huge, with one such ship being able to haul
enough gas on a single trip to supply 1 1 ,900 homes
for a year.

While LNG tankers may help assure an adequate
supply of natural gas, they are considered to be the
most complicated merchant ship to build and, ex-
cept for luxury passenger ships, the most expen-
sive. Their cargo tanks must be able to maintain
liquefied natural gas at -260’ F during long voy-
ages and be strong enough to prevent breakages
that would cause the liquid to heat and turn Into
gas, as its volume would thus expand by more than
600 times. A major supplier, El Paso Natural Gas
Co., formally requested a federal government sub-
sidy to help build six LNG tankers, at $72 million
each, to haul gas from Algeria to the U.S. In 1972
it was building three similar ships in France.

The first European-built LASH ship started
commercial service in February 1972. These spe-
cialized ships carry lighters and containers that
are loaded and unloaded by on-board cranes. More
than 20 were In service or being built. The three
even larger SEABEE ships being built for Lykes
Bros. Steamship Co. were expected to be in service
by late 1972 or early 1973. They were designed to
haul large barges that could be floated on and off
a stern elevator for lifting and placing on any of
three decks. They would have the most power
(36,000 shaft horsepower) of any single-screw
merchant ship and be the largest general cargo
ship afloat.

Litton Industries, Inc., announced plans to build
what it called "the largest push-type tug-barge
cargo transporter In the world”; it would be 1,000
ft in length when being pushed by its 1 5,000-hp tug.
This unique, self-loading/unloading vessel would
be able to carry about 52,000 tons of a variety of

dry bulk cargoes, including iron ore, limestone, and
coal. Using a novel, on-board rotary elevator
— which would be 6772 ft in diameter and look
much like a water wheel— that would be linked to
special conveyors, the barge could unload at a rate
of 10,000 tons per hour. To be operated in the Great
Lakes, the tug-barge was expected to be completed
and undergoing sea trials and systems tests by the
end of 1972.

Air-cushion and linear-induction motor ve-
hicles. The U.S. Department of Transportation
continued to put a strong research emphasis on
the tracked air-cushion vehicle (TACV) as the
most probable mode of high-speed surface pas-
senger transport in the future. The department’s
comprehensive Northeast Corridor Transportation
Project concluded that TACV is a "prime alter-
native” for passenger transport needs in the 1980s,
because "it offers the potential for very good
reliability, comfort and safety; high capacity; and
decreasing passenger-mile costs at high volume."

Three major U.S. aircraft manufacturers were
engaged in separate projects for the government.
Rohr Corp. and Vought Aeronautics Co., under
contracts totaling $2,850,000, were producing de-
signs and mock-ups of a 60-passenger TACV to be
powered by an electric linear-induction motor at
speeds up to 150 mph. They were to be delivered
in 1972, with one selected for possible construction
and testing as a prototype for high-speed travel
from urban centers to outlying airports and to
other cities at distances- up to 50 miles. Grumman
Aerospace Corp. received the third contract, for
$3.5 million, to build a TACV capable of speeds up
to 300 mph for longer-distance travel. It was to be
tested extensively in 1972.

Other countries were also continuing the de-
velopment of such vehicles. Bertin & Co., with
backing from the French government, had two
types of air-cushion "Aero-trains" in operation. A
larger version carried 80 passengers at normal
speeds of 155 to 160 mph on an 11.2-ml elevated
guideway north of Orleans, France. Its lift propul-
sion and braking (using reverse pitch) were pro-
vided by gas turbines. The smaller version carried
40 passengers at speeds of 112 mph. It was being
tested on a shortertrack at Gometz-la-Ville, France.

Outlook for 1973. After two years of traffic and
financial setbacks, the airlines were expected to
experience a resurgence that would result in the
renewal of orders for new jumbo jets such as the
B-747, DC-10, and L-1011. Efforts will continue to
develop a suitable air transport for high-volume,
short-haul trips.

Turbine engine output for large trucks and buses
was expected to change from experimental to
production-line models, giving a boost to twin-

335

Courtesy, Los Alomos Scientific Loborotory

An electrically powered rock-melting drill undergoes
preliminary tests at the Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory. Scientists predicted that eventually the
drills, called subterrenes, would be used for large-scafe
projects such as highway and railroad tunnels.

trailer and intercity bus operations over long,
minimum-stop routes. The use of exclusive and/or
separate bus lanes for rush-hour commuter traffic
will be expanded sharply.

Railroads, with help from the government, will
begin to develop their now individualized freight
car control systems into a national network. Road-
side scanners at key interchange terminals will
record car locations for computerized control.

A sharp spurt in orders for supertankers to haul
both petroleum and liquid natural gas was ex-
pected. along v/ith the development of more off-
shore terminals to enable the tankers to operate to
points that do not have ports that can handle them
The huge SEABEE barge-carrying vessels will start
commercial service, and additional variations of
deepwater tug-barge vessels will be ordered for
construction.

—Frank A. Smith

Veterinary medicine

Several diseases of livestock and poultry reached
epizootic proportions in the U.S. and focused re-
newed attention upon various eradication efforts.
The two most serious outbreaks were those of
Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) and
of exotic Newcastle disease in poultry and pet
birds. That both of these diseases were imported
reflected the growing potential for inadvertent in-
troduction of organisms and the need for increased
surveillance at ports of entry.

Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. The first
outbreak of VEE in the U.S. began near Browns-
ville, Tex., in late June 1971 and by the end of July
had affected more than 2,000 horses, about half
of which died. A national emergency was declared,
and immediate steps were taken to control the
disease by quarantine, vaccination, and aerial
spraying to eradicate the mosquito vector. By the
time the last case was confirmed in November,
about 3,400 horses had been affected and some
1,400 had died. The virus, which also causes a
relatively mild disease in humans, was isolated in
88 persons in Texas; there were no deaths. More
than eight million acres in Gulf Coast areas were
sprayed with insecticide, and 2.8 million horses in
19 states and the District of Columbia were vac-
cinated, including 80% of those in high-risk areas.

VEE had been present in South and Central
America since 1935, and when a major outbreak
erupted in Guatemala in 1969, the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) began a cooperative vac-
cination program. This was extended to Mexico
during 1970-71, when up to 25,000 horses died
and perhaps 12,000 persons were affected. The
rapid containment of the U.S. outbreak was attrib-
utable in large measure to the early release of vac-
cine that had been stockpiled as a potential bio-
logical warfare countermeasure. Though VEE
resembles the disease caused by the eastern (EEE)
and western (WEE) strains of the encephalomyelitis
("sleeping sickness") virus, both long present in
the U.S., the vaccines against these two strains
conferred no protection against VEE. Some con-
cern was expressed regarding the safety of the
relatively untested VEE vaccine. The results of a
USDA study released in March 1 972, however, made
it clear that the vaccine was safe, and government
veterinarians urged that all horses not vaccinated
in 1971 be protected. Meanwhile, a commercial
vaccine had been produced in ample quantities.

Poultry diseases. Newcastle disease of poultry
and pet birds had been present in the U.S. and
most of the more developed nations for several
decades but had been kept under control by vac-
cination and sanitation. In 1970 an exotic strain

336

Veterinary medicine

of the virus, apparently from the Orient, was found
in ornamental birds imported to the U.S., and later
in commercial poultry flocks in Texas and New
Mexico. Hardest hit was southern California, where,
since December 1971, the disease had affected
flocks containing some 1.5 million birds. By March
1972 more than 350,000 chickens had died in San
Bernardino County alone, and it was estimated
that some two million birds would have to be
destroyed before vaccination would bring the
disease under effective control. In March a state
of disaster was declared in this area.

Earlier, a "henocide” program had been urged to
bolster egg prices, which were too low to make
egg farming profitable, but the disease and the
eradication measures being employed against it
were expected to make such a program unneces-
sary. Import regulations affecting some 280,000
pet birds brought into the U.S. annually were ex-
tended to require blood tests overseas and again
on entry.

Marek’s disease, a form of leukosis (leukemia)
in chickens and turkeys, had threatened to disrupt
if not destroy the poultry industry in the U.S. and
Europe until an effective vaccine had become avail-
able in 1971. Although the vaccine would not
eradicate the disease, tests on two million broilers
indicated that each dollar spent on vaccine (no
more than two cents per bird) returned $2-S5 in
profits, even when losses among unvaccinated
birds were only 5%. If all laying hens in the U.S.
were vaccinated, 8.1 million fewer chickens could
produce the same number of eggs, saving 500,000
tons of feed annually and releasing 100,000 ac of
corn land for other uses.

Toxoplasmosis in cats. During the year several
women’s magazines carried well-intended but ill-
advised articles indicating that cats presented a
major hazard to pregnant women because they
transmitted toxoplasmosis. This disease is caused
by a protozoan parasite and produces symptoms
like those of infectious mononucleosis. If a woman
becomes infected during pregnancy, the infant
may be born with serious birth defects. But the
hazard should be viewed in perspective. About 25%
of the U.S. population has toxoplasmosis anti-
bodies and, hence, presumed immunity to further
infection. In addition, while toxoplasma eggs can
be found in cat feces and can transmit the disease
to other animals, there was no instance of infection
in man traceable to either source. The American
Veterinary Medical Association and the U.S. Public
Health Service, without incriminating the cat as a
major causal factor in toxoplasmosis, recom-
mended that pregnant women not increase the
risk of the disease by acquiring a new cat, nor
allow household cats to catch birds or other ani-

mals that might transmit the infection. They should
also avoid handling cat litter or digging in gardens
frequented by cats.

Drug problems. In a continuing study of the
safety and effectiveness of veterinary medications,
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (as it had
with numerous drugs for human use) withdrew its
approval of many compounds marketed years be-
fore claims for efficacy were closely scrutinized.
The FDA, in cooperation with the USDA, was also
enforcing more stringent regulations concerning
the tolerable residues in meat of the chemical
hormonal analogue diethylstilbestrol, fed or im-
planted in cattle to promote fattening. In late

1971 a random survey of 2,500 liver samples from
slaughtered beef cattle turned up 10 with more
than the allowable residues, the tolerance being
zero, though the test was not sensitive to less than
two parts per billion.

Slitbestrol had produced cancers in laboratory
mice at six parts per billion, thus warranting
rigorous supervision of its use in meat animals.
Although no instance was reported of residues
in meat causing cancer in man, the period of
withdrawal from the drug prior to slaughter was
extended from 48 hours to 7 days.

Veterinarians were reporting a few cases of "pot
syndrome” in dogs and cats. Both animals ap-
peared to be highly susceptible to marijuana, either
by ingestion or by inhaling its smoke.

Animal disease eradication. The 10-year hog
cholera eradication program begun in 1962 had
made rapid strides since the use of vaccine was
outlawed in 1969. Forty-one states had been de-
clared cholera-free by late April 1972. In February

1972 the U.S. Department of Agriculture committed
itself to a drive to eradicate brucellosis from live-
stock by the end of 1975, five years ahead of the
original schedule. The disease causes abortion in
cattle and affects other domestic animals; it can
be transmitted to man, causing undulant fever.
Twenty-four states were certified as brucellosis-
free, but the three making the least progress (Texas,
Nebraska, and Mississippi) had about 20% of all
U.S, cattle.

Complacency and curtailment of test-and-
slaughter programs had permitted swine and poul-
try to become important reservoirs of the tuber-
culosis bacterium. In 1970 lesions were found in
1.09% of all swine slaughtered in federally in-
spected plants, and the avian form was believed
to be nearly as prevalent in small farm flocks. Both
forms were potentially hazardous to man, but
producers did not consider TB an economic prob-
lem and eradication would require cooperation
with human health agencies.

— J. F. Smithcors

337

Zoology

Zoology as a discipline predates Aristotle and has
attracted many of the world’s greatest minds. In
the 1970s the zoologist continued to work along
traditional but exciting lines, discovering, de-
scribing, and classifying organisms and structures
and thereby broadening the base for future re-
search. This kind of work might have seemed un-
necessary alongside such contemporary problems
as drug abuse, pollution, population growth, and
health care until one noticed how much the in-
formation gained from organisms could be applied
appropriately for the benefit of man..

General zoology. The favorable economics of
dwarfism, long exploited by plant geneticists in
high-yield wheat and rice, was being applied in
zoology. Selective breeding of fowl, utilizing a sex-
linked dwarfing gene, produced a laying hen of the
Leghorn type and a hen that produces broiler
chickens: each was only two-thirds normal size.
Three of these hens could fit in a standard cage for
two, and each could be expected to produce 200
standard-size eggs, compared with 240 for normal
birds, for an investment of the same 160 lb of feed
per cage. This was a production gain of more than
20% at no increase in feed cost. Broiler chickens
offered the same kind of feed economy. Re-
searchers at Hy-Line Poultry Farms, Des Moines,
la„ were examining the possibility of exploiting a
similar dwarfing gene in beef cattle, while, at the
California Institute of Technology, an injection of
minimine— a toxic polypeptide isolated from the
bee venom — into fruit fly larvae was found to result
in one-quarter-size adults that were normal in
every way except that their individual cells were
miniature. The new breed of fly lived a normal life-

span and produced regular-size offspring.

The alfalfa leaf-cutting bee, a wild bee, was a
highly effective pollinator in Idaho, where after
introduction it would often double alfalfa seed
yield. But efforts to introduce the bee in California
were less than successful mainly because the bee
had difficulty in reproducing there. Robbin Thorp
of the University of California at Davis said that in
California the bee appeared to be the victim of a
toxin, a steroid material called saponin, that occurs
naturally m California alfalfa varieties. Thorp

rm°n P'’®Pa'''ng nests, bite out

smal circles of alfalfa leaf. Nectar deposited in the
dissolves the saponin, and when the
arvae feed on the poisoned food they die To in-
ombaw successfully in California would

of aUalfa "°ntoxic varieties

Eldon Reeves and S. V. Amonkar
of California at Riverside found
338

of the University
two species of

algae in California that specifically kill mosquito
larvae. The algae, Cladophora glomerata and
Chara elegans, release toxic substances that at-
tack the lining of the larva’s alimentary canal and
that are especially effective against Aedes aegypti,
a disease carrier, as well as four other species of
mosquito. The insects and fish that live in mosquito
habitats remained healthy in the presence of these
active compounds at levels that suppressed mos-
quito development.

Like mayflies, stone flies {order Plecoptera) pass
through an aquatic nymphal stage commonly
found in streams and rivers. Twenty new Australian
species were added to the family list by I. D.
McLellan, who, in a revision published in the Aus-
tralian Journal of Zoology, described the new types,
which include the new genus and species Nebois-
soperla alpina discovered in a small stream on
Mt. Wellington, Victoria.

Because so many aphids were serious pests
and because their life cycle was notoriously com-
plicated, it was important to be able to identify the
different stages of a particular species. This was
often easier said than done. In the case of the
woolly aphids, the Adelgidae, specific identification
was very difficult or even impossible and in Europe
only a dozen or so species of these serious pests of
conifer trees had been recorded. Considerable help
toward the identification of the winged forms
(alatae) of adelgids was given in a new booklet by
D. I. Carter of the British Forestry Commission.
Three of the species described, Adelges viridana,
Pineus pineoides, and P. orlentalis, were recorded
for the first time in Britain.

Ocelli are simple eyes found in adult insects.
They are incapable of perceiving form but are
receptive to changes in light intensity. Adult
sphinx moths, Manducta sexta, lack external ocelli.
Microscopic studies revealed tissue inside M.
sexta that show structural similarities to ocelli of
other insects. New electrophysiological studies
of this tissue revealed a response to light stimuli
similar to that recorded for external ocelli. These
studies also showed that illumination of the ocellus
inhibits the continuous discharge that occurs in
the ocellar nerve during darkness. Further, be-
havioral studies showed that the ocelli are impor-
tant in the regulation of the daily rhythm of insects.

It was learned that insects are strongly attracted
to a submillimeter radiation source. A theoretical
study on the moth antennae, together with the
frequency dependence of their response to elec-
tromagnetic radiation, strongly suggested that the
antennae may be the receptor through which in-
sects are stimulated to respond. The response is
very pronounced and has strong potential for
traps to control the population of pest insects.

Zoology

Ip. the central nervous system, the spinal cord
and the lov/er brain were generally viev/ed as being
little more than the passive recipient and the in-
tegrator of multiple sensory inputs more or less on
a reflex basis. Recent investigations made the
reflex hypothesis untenable. Nerve networks
located in the central nervous system of both
vertebrate and invertebrate animals appeared
capable of numerous and varied functions that
v/ere essentially independent of sensory controls.
Recent v/ork showed that central-nervous-system
networks, independent of the senses, could func-
tion in a wide variety of ways and give rise to kinds
of behavior difficult to explain on the hypothesis
that the nervous system is largely a reflex mecha-
nism.

Iridescence caused by regular multilayer struc-
tures stacked in a medium of different refractive
index v/as observed in a variety of animal tissues.
Corneal iridescence had not received much at-
tention in the scientific literature. It v/as found that
fishes v/ith iridescent corneas often, but not al-
ways, possess filters for yellow light at some point
in the optical pathway. It was too early to speculate
on the role of the yellow optical filters and the
iridescent cornea on selective spectral absorption
of light from different directions, but all fishes so
far knov/n to possess this iridescence lived and fed
near the bottom of the sea.

The distribution of marine life in the sea v/as still
difficult to determine with present methods of
study. A technique that offered particular promise
for defining the locales in v/hich sea creatures
dv/ell v/as deep-ocean photography. On a recent
voyage of the USNS "Lynch," researchers obtained
340 exposures of the Caribbean Sea floor at 17
stations. Among the pictures obtained was the
deepest photographic observation yet of a cepha-
lopod (a class of mollusks that includes octopus
and squid). The specimen, about 45 cm long, v/as
identified as belonging to the Cirroteuthidae
family, that of the octopus. It was about one meter
off the sea floor, at a depth of 5,145 m.

The Pogonophora — marine, tubicolous, worm-
like animals that live buried in soft sediments
often in the abyssal regions of the oceans — v/ere
overlooked by biologists until 1955 when the
phylum v/as established by the Soviet scientist
A. V. Ivanov. One marine zoologist who made the
group her special study was Eve C. Southward of
the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth,
Eng. In a nev/ report she added three more species
— Diplobrachia floridiensis, Suboglinoides carib-
beanus. and Siboglinum bayeri — to a growing list
of species recovered by teams from sampling
stations along the continental margin of North
America. A total of 24 species from depths ranging

Man’s view of himself was fundamentally altered
by Charles Darwin. His Origin of Species estab*
lished the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Zoology

from 40 m to more than 5,000 m had been re-
covered as of mid-1972 by these teams.

Discussions of the evolution of vertebrate hearing
systems tended, for lack of physiological data, to
concentrate on changes in middle ear structure.
Conspicuous differences are seen among reptiles,
birds, and mammals in the shape of the basilar
membrane of the inner ear. Use of a new method of
frequency analysis indicated that "advanced”
reptilian membranes analyze frequencies in a way
similar to those of birds and mammals.

The distinctive markings and colors of birds are
more than just decoration. They serve as camou-
flage. mimicry, social signals, and temperature
regulators. Certain markings, according to Robert
W. Ficken and Paul E. Matthiae of the University
of Wisconsin at Milwaukee and Robert Horwich of
the Chicago Zoological Society, may have yet
another, very specialized, function. Eye lines,
marks leading from the eye toward the tip of the
bill of some predatory species, may serve as aiming
sights in tracking and capturing swiftly moving
prey. The researchers found a high correlation
beUveen the presence of eye lines in North Ameri-
can songbirds and their tendency to feed on swiftly
moving prey.

The basis for the remarkable navigational abilit>'
of homing pigeons remained unknown. C. Walcott
and M. C. Michener published the results of a major
series of experiments designed to change the
direction in which pigeons believe their home lofts
to be by shifting their internal clocks from five
minutes to six hours before releasing them. But
no clock-shifted pigeon ever flew to or investi-

gated a false home area. Slowing down the birds'
internal clocks also had no effect on their abilitj'
to navigate to their home lofts.

Pigeons, like other animals, certainly use the sun
as an azimuthal compass reference, but Walcott
and Michener found no evidence that they can use
it for true navigation. The "map” of the homing
bird was. therefore, as great a mystery as ever,
even more so in the light of recent evidence that
pigeons do not depend on a view of any celestial
body and can operate effectively even after many
days' imprisonment away from the home lofL

For those v/ho contended that inborn mecha-
nisms other than genes control the timing of bio-
logical clocks, a blow was struck by two California
Institute of Technology biologists. Hypothesizing
that mutation of certain genes might lead to ab-
normal rhythms, Ronald Konopka and Seymour
Benzer exposed Drosophila flies to a drug known
to cause mutations. It did indeed upset the daily
rhythmic cycles of emergence of the adult fly from
the pupa and of locomotor activity. The changes in
rhythms also carried over into subsequent fly
generations. The work was not final proof that the
key to the biological clock is internal, but it showed,
said Konopka, that “genes play a key role in deter-
mining or in specifying rhythms.”

Developmental zoology. Compared v/ith the
successful storage of spermatozoa and other
tissue cells at sub-zero temperatures, attempts to
preserve frozen mammalian eggs were disappoint-
ing. A new technique for obtaining a high propor-
tion of viable embryos after subjecting them to
sub-zero temperatures was described. These re-

Tiny insectlike tardigrade, seen
here magnified more than 100
times, exhibits cryptobiosis
(below), a dormant, deathlike
state of almost complete
dehydration. When the animal
is moistened, it revives (right).
By alternating these states,
tardigrades greatly extend their
life-spans.

Zoology

suits demonstrated that mouse embryos could be
frozen and thawed successfully if a suitable pro-
tective agent was added to the medium before
freezing.

Having achieved external fertilization, the next
step in this area of experimental embryology would
be complete in vitro (in the test tube) growth of
the embryo. Unfortunately, growth stops when the
cells begin to form into specialized organs, m what
is called the blastocyst stage, when the developing
embryo normally implants itself in the wall of the
uterus. Once this stage has been passed, growth
in an artificial womb could take place. Therefore,
reaching and passing this stage of development
was a major research goal. Yu Chih Hsu of Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., announced
that he developed mouse embryos beyond the im-
plantation stage in culture dishes coated with rat
tail collagen, a protein substance. Because, as
Hsu put it, "all the embryos developed in vitro seem
to be defective in one organ or the other with the
present method," he concluded that "the supply
of nutrients and gases may be inadequate for fur-
ther embryonic development." Hsu believed that
now was the proper time to begin work on an
artificial placenta that could supply the necessary
nutrients and gases to the embryo.

Independently, a handful of chemical engineers
was turning from traditional industrial challenges
to the creation of such biomedical devices. One of
the more ambitious undertakings was to probe and
simulate functions of the placenta in engineering
terms. The work was detailed in September 1971
at a national meeting of the American Chemical
Society in Washington, D.C. Chemical engineers
Daniel Reneau and Eric Guilbeau of Louisiana
Polytechnic Institute and their physician-phys-
iologist co-worker, Melvin Knisely of the Medical
College of South Carolina, developed a theoretical
model of the placenta. They were planning to
undertake animai experiments to test their simula-
tion. The model, linked with a computer into which
many variables could be fed, would help tell them
what they should look for in their experiments.
(See Feature Article: TEST-TUBE BABIES.)

For all its sophistication, modern biology was
not able to explain why certain lower organisms
can grow back certain injured or iost parts — the
worm its lower body, or the lizard its tail. Nor had
it been able to explain why higher animals do not
have this capacity. R. Becker of the State University
of New York Upstate Medical Center at Syracuse
partially regenerated the forelimbs of several dozen
rats amputated between what corresponds to the
shoulder and the elbow in humans. Minuscule
amounts of electric current applied to the severed
sites stimulated the limbs to grow down to the el-

bows. Becker’s was the most advanced success yet
in regenerating a limb in an animal as high up the
evolutionary ladder as the rat. For 15 years Becker
has pursued the theory that mammals are not able
to regenerate damaged limbs because they have
lost the ability to generate enough electricity to
stimulate the formation of a new iimb bud.

Ecological studies. It was found that the large
flightless grasshopper from Florida, Romalea
microptera, probably takes the herbicide 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), metabolizes
it, then uses it in a kind of chemical warfare to re-
pulse predators. There were many documented
instances of insects using chemicals produced by
other species, but this was the first report involving
a man-made pesticide, although such uses of man-
made chemicals may not be all that exceptional.

A report that might surprise many was one that
revealed mercury levels in several human tissues
declined from the 34.5 parts per million recorded
in 1913-19 to about 5.5 ppm currently. At a con-
ference on pollution, J. Ui of the University of
Tokyo spoke of the dangers to health that may
arise from the release of mercury into the natural
waters of densely populated areas. His opinion,
endorsed by others, was that mercury poilution
was likely only to be a local problem, because the
amount of mercury reaching the sea from indus-
trial sources was only a small fraction of that enter-
ing by normal geological processes. He considered
that a much greater threat to man’s health was
posed by toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as
DDT, and polychlorinated biphenyls (RGBs), which
enter the sea by way of the atmosphere and are,
therefore, distributed globally. These compounds
are concentrated by marine animals at many
levels in the food chain. [See Feature Article:
THE NOTORIOUS TRIO: MERCURY, LEAD, AND
CADMIUM.)

DDT and other pesticides rendered some large
bird species nearly extinct because they inter-
fered with calcium metaboiism and caused egg-
shell thinning. Such shells break before the em-
bryos mature. L. Z. McFarland and R. L. Garrett of
the University of California School of Veterinary
Medicine at Davis used a scanning electron micro-
scope to determine that the middle layer of the
multilayered eggshell contributes the most toward
structural strength, and that it was this layer that
was most adversely affected by DDT.

One investigation of how, physioiogically,
pesticides kill insects was based on the observa-
tion that water conservation is critical for insects
because of their large surface area relative to their
volume and the generally arid environment in
which they live. There were indications that the
critical water balance is disrupted by poisoning

341

Zoology

v/ith certain insecticide chemicals, but the physio-
logical basis for this action had not previously
been defined. S. Maddrell and J. Casida of the
University of Cambridge found that treatment of
Rhodnius with DDT results in the massive excretion
of a large volume of fluid into its rectum. Further-
more, the underlying mechanism involves the
release of diuretic hormone, possibly from a bound
form in the central nervous system, into the hemo-
lymph (insect "blood"), where it contacts the
Malpighian tubules (in the insect’s "kidneys") and
greatly increases their rate of secretion. The ex-
cretion induced by insecticide chemicals was
always found to be initiated during the paralytic
stage of poisoning. (See Feature Article: SPECIES
IN PERIL.)

These findings were obviously of potential im-
portance in the use and design of insecticide
chemicals. The rapid loss of a large volume of
fluid could kill the animal by dehydration. Further-
more, the Malpighian tubules secrete a fluid that
is, in general, extremely rich in potassium, high in
phosphate, and low in sodium and chloride. This
changes the insect's ionic balance drastically, and
probably enhances its disruptive action on the
nervous system. Finally, these kinds of dehydration
changes could be initiated by chemicals that are

nonpersistent In the environment. All that needec
to be discovered was whether the bug is killec
first by paralysis, or by dehydration, or by both.

For those who might favor gentler methods o1
dealing with pests, J. S. Gill and C. T. Lewis ol
London’s Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology believed that applications of the nontoxic,
distasteful chemical substances produced by some
plants might deter insects from attacking crops
and, thus, offer an alternative to toxic pesticides. A
suspension of crushed seeds or leaves from the
neem tree, a large East Indian tree with a bitter
bark, deterred some insect species from feeding
when applied to plant foliage. This compound can
be absorbed by the roots of plants.

The ladybird beetle, Stethorus punctum, was
being used by scientists at Pennsylvania State
University and independent apple growers in a
program of "integrated control" of mites harmful
to apple trees. In this program the grower must
arrange a careful balance between protecting the

while at the same time not harming Stethorus
which preys upon the European red mite and the
two-spotted spider. If these pests were destroyed

er sprays. This not only lowered the level of

342

environmental pollution but also growers’ costs.
Another advantage was that Stethorus would eat
mites that were resistant to the sprays.

The chemical 13-methylhentriacontane was
identified in the feces and larvae of the corn-ear
worm Heliothis zee (Boddie), a pest of consider-
able economic importance, as the major constit-
uent that triggers the short-range host-seeking
response of its parasite, Microplitis croceipes
(Cresson). Bioassay of closely related compounds
indicated that the structural requirements for
activity are remarkably specific. This chemical, the
first of its kind to be found, could also upgrade
efforts to use parasites for insect control as well
as lead to a better understanding of insect behavior
mechanisms.

In a fascinating study, Sarah Corbet of the Uni-
versity of London reported that when caterpillars
of the Anagosta kuehniella touch each other they
deposit a secretion from their mandibular glands
on the substratum. This secretion stimulates
oviposition movements in its insect parasite
Venturia canescens (Grav.) and a larger proportion
of the host caterpillars are parasitized in a crowded
population than in an uncrowded one. When a
female of V. canescens oviposits in a larva of A.
kuehniella, she taps her antennae against the host,
unsheaths her ovipositor, and then makes jabbing
movements, which, if they penetrate the host’s
cuticle, may result in the release of an egg. The
experiments showed that the parasite responds
quantitatively to its host’s secretion. The finding of
this substance, termed an epideictic pheromone,
might have applications in the control of some
other butterfly and moth pests, especially if their
mandibular glands prove to have a similar function.
Work was in progress on the chemical character-
ization of the components of the secretion, making
use of the parasite’s ovipositional response as a
clever bioassay for its presence.

A very simple agent for controlling insect pests
without harming other organisms (including man)
was being investigated by three workers with the
Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. The agent was light. Larvae of
many insects, such as the codling moth and corn
borers, go into diapause, a state resembling
hibernation, when the days become shorter in the
fall. With spring, longer days, and more light, the
larvae resume their life cycle and metamorphose
into adults. Artificial light might be used to prolong
the days so that the larvae would not go into dia-
pause but would metamorphose in the fall and be
wiped out by the winter weather. On a test plot
where artificial light v/as supplied by 40 -watt
fluorescent lamps, more than 70% of the insects
failed to go into diapause, continuing instead to

develop into adult moths in the fall. Apparently the
major drawback of this procedure was the cost of
optimum lighting conditions.

Evolution studies. The search into the details of
the origin of life continued. There was speculation,
for example, that the organelles, specialized cellu-
lar bodies, might once have been independent
organisms. A new symbiosis theory held that the
genetic material recently found in chloroplasts and
mitochondria demonstrated that these two kinds of
organelle were once free-living organisms. The
theory proposed that the higher plants are the
result of a symbiosis between animal-like hosts
and photosynthetic blue-green-algalike guests
whose partnership could not have evolved until
relatively recent times, when mitosis had been
perfected. Proof that the symbiosis theory is cor-
rect demanded experiment.

One of the major trends in evolution studies was
a decline in subjective typological reasoning in-
volving examination of single features only and
a corresponding move toward the use of more
objective, comprehensive, and, increasingly, sta-
tistical methods analyzing complexes of many
traits. Because of the fragmentary condition of
most fossil remains, the scope of the trait complex
approach v/as very limited, but application of the
statistical concepts of population genetics allowed
the investigator to consider his sample, however
small, as a part of a larger population, and to make
the population, not the individual, the unit of study.

New techniques that detected patterns of flu-
orescence caused by the binding of the drug guin-
acrine to specific regions of chromosomes were
being used in chromosome analyses of various
mammals. It was found that fluorescence of the
intensity found on the human Y chromosome was
only present in the African great apes and man.
Applying this information, the investigators sug-
gested that the absence of intense fluorescence
in the orangutan or gibbon makes it likely that
these apes evolved from an ancestral stock before
the origin of the lineage giving rise to the African
great apes and man.

—John G. Lepp

Snails that transmit the debilitating disease
schistosomiasis, or snail fever, can be controlled
v/ithout pesticides. At top a marsh fly larva approaches
a snail harboring the tiny flatworm larvae that cause
the disease. The larva attacks the snail, pursues it into
its shell, and feeds on it. Thus the snails can be
destroyed v/ithout the harmful effects to the environment
caused by pesticides.

A Pictorial Essay

Art and Technology

by Jack W. Burnham

Modern science has given rise to a wealth ot technical gadgetry.
Modern artists, in turn, are using this technology for their

own purposes.

Day Passage" by Rockne Krebs. Photo, Ed Cornachio.

Marcel Duchamp worked over a period
of six years on sketches
lor this optical-precision machine,
"Rotative Demi-sphere," 1925.

It was finally made to his
specification and used in a motion
picture. When looked at for some
time, the instrument's spirals seem
to invert and become concave. While
obviously a forerunner of optical
art, "Rotative Demi-sphere"
was reputedly made by Duchamp
as a "mechanized" model for all
the final stages of modern art.

JACK W. BURNHAM, an associate
professor of art at Northwestern
University, is the author of Beyond
Modern Sculpture and The
Structure of Art.

In what seemed a meaningless act, the French artist Marcel Duchamp
turned a bicycle wheel with its steering fork upside dov/n and affixed
it to the seat of a kitchen stool. That occurred in 1913. Since then the
possibilities of mechanized art have intrigued many artists. Such avant-
gardists as Laszio Moholy-Nagy, Naum Gabo, and Alexander Calder
pioneered In moving, or "kinetic,” sculpture during the early decades
of the century. But not until the 1960s did the impact of sophisticated
technology make itself felt in the art world. Today we can begin to
evaluate this period of intense experimentation, which has provided us
with valuable insights into what makes the marriage of art and tech-
nology work.

Within the art world itself, the artist's use of sophisticated technology
is a particularly sensitive issue. Many "humanist" art critics have re-
peatedly attacked such endeavors for producing trivia, wasting money,
and making the artist dependent on large corporations whose goals
are anything but aesthetically motivated. However, it is not in the use of
new, exotic materials or power sources that "Teckart,” as its critics
label it, succeeds or fails, but in the threat that it poses to the traditional
dichotomy between the fine and technical arts. It has often been said
that people go to art museums to escape the sensory chaos of an over-
mechanized environment. Yet when they find this very thing in the
museum, they have reason to feel that art is no longer serving its func-
tion as a humanistic alternative. Some foresee a gradual fusion of
artistic creation and the technology of industrial production.

Within this trend there lies a strange paradox. On the one hand, it
could be proposed that art is in danger of becoming obsolete, of falling
behind in the cultural onrush of applied scientific research. On the
other hand, the more art begins to resemble some of our technologies,
the less it satisfies our aesthetic instincts. Possibly this dilemma can
be resolved if we look at some trends emerging from art and tech-
nology exhibitions in the last ten years.

Artists and engineers

What might be called early contemporary efforts, such as the kinetic
art exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in Stockholm in the sum-
mer of 1961, emphasized the historical aspect of light and movement
as art forms. At a practical level, this involved simple motor-driven
devices and occasional mechanized light boxes. Following the Stock-
holm retrospective, a tendency developed toward an escalation of
technical means, with an emphasis on collaborations betv/een artists
and research or engineering personnel. By the mid-1960s a dividing
line had developed between "machine-art" as such and v/hat could be
labeled as "systems technology.” This second includes artists’ use of
computer systems, laser technology, plasma physics, audio tape-
controlled environments, color copy duplicating systems, programmed
strobe light, and various artificially controlled ecological sites.

Such a division, vrhich is perhaps more psychological than technical,
v/as recognized in 1968 by the exhibition "The Machine as Seen at the
346

Courtesy, Jack W. Burnham

End of the Mechanical Age" at New York City's Museum of Modern Art.
The Swedish historian Pontus Hulten, who was mainly responsible for
the earlier kinetic show in Stockholm, was its organizer. Hulten s selec-
tion dealt with the mythological aura that surrounded industrial design
in the first half of the century. In no small way artists have been influ-
enced as much by the shape of automobiles and airplanes as by the
more practical considerations of technology.

During the fall of 1966 the first large-scale avant-garde festival of
art and scientific research took place in New York City. "9 evenings:
theatre and engineering" proved to be the training ground for all sub-
sequent experiments in this direction. For the mostly hostile critics

347

Courtesy, Jack W. Bumhom

In "Meta-matic No. 17," 1959. one
ol a series ot art-making machines
by the Swiss-French sculptor Jean
Tinguely, pens scratch random marks
on a moving roll of paper,
parodying the abstract expressionist
style of the 1950s. Designed
to break down, Tinguely's machines
represent witty philosophical
observations on machine-oriented
societies.

who attended, “9 evenings” appeared to be an unprepared series of
Space Age happenings, beset by constant breakdowns and delays.
Ironically, though, the year-long preparations for the "9 evenings"
demanded a deep emotional involvement from many of the participants.
It proved several things. Artists and engineers can work together
toward common goals provided they share some degree of technical
knowledge. Moreover, it demonstrated beyond doubt that the excite-
ment of technology comes with using it rather than viewing it.

"9 evenings" was masterminded by Bell Laboratories scientist Billy
Kltiyer, who subsequently founded Experiments in Art and Technology,
Inc. Originally, Kliiver’s goal was to provide a parent corporation where
artists worldwide could receive technical assistance from scientists
and engineers interested in their projects. Soon EAT had several
thousand names in its active file and the promised support of several
important corporations and foundations. EAT's basic function was to
facilitate technicalization of the arts, while also serving as an antidote
to the dehumanizing aspects of social innovation.

EAT's most important statement came in the form of an open exhibi-
tion at the Brooklyn Museum and the Museum of Modern Art in Nev/
York during the winter of 1968-69. Its title. “Some More Beginnings."
perhaps gives an indication of the caution that then prevailed. The
earlier optimistic belief that technology was the wave of the future had
given way to a realization that much technicalized art fails aesthetically
and makes little sense financially to the artist, engineer, or gallery.
Research costs for unique projects remain relatively high for the artist,
as do maintenance expenses for the museum. A unique feature of
"Some More Beginnings" was its attempt to give incentive to en-
gineers. Considerable publicity, along with the main prizes, went to
engineers rather than to artists. Well over a hundred entries of greatly
varying quality were shov/n.

As the novelty gradually faded from technological art, EAT was con-
fronted v/ith several fundamental difficulties. Such art tends to attract
more than its share of bad work. Artists of reputation do not need the
sponsorship of EAT to gain help from corporations. Most decisively,
few engineers are inclined toward extended collaboration with artists
without the incentive of financial help. At present EAT is no longer a
force in the art world, and its remaining energies seem to be focused
on large-scale urban problems.

The programmed art experience

The first international exhibition of "post-machine" art took place at
the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London during the summer of
1968. Jasia Reichardf's "Cybernetic Serendipity" attempted to docu-
ment the creative use of computers and various cybernetic devices.
Its book-catalog contains a good layman's account of the historical
development of digital computers. "Cybernetic Serendipity" included
some strictly scientific experiments, along with works by artists that
utilized the principle of feedback in machines responding to both
348

internal and external stimuli. Other exhibits featured printouts (visual
diagrams) from computers as used in music analysis, computer
graphics and movies, computer-designed choreography, and com-
puter poems and text analysis. Generally speaking, computer graphics
and painting have found little favor in the art world. They usually seem
to be pale imitations of earlier modernist styles. (There are a few ex-
ceptions to the "pretty picture" school of computer graphics. For
instance, the English painter Harold Cohen is concerned with a "game
theory" of strategies for creating paintings according to very primary
assumptions. Cohen devises programs based on theories of graphic
creativity.) Unfortunately, much of "Cybernetic Serendipity" was
destroyed in transit when it was shipped to the Corcoran Gallery of
Art in Washington, D.C.

The 1970 cybernetic exhibition at New York City’s Jewish Museum
proved to be a more interactional experience for the gallery goer.
"Software” had the added complication of using several computers in
the museum. It included a programmed catalog where viewers were
encouraged to sit down at key-scope terminals and type out questions

Harold Cohen works with a Data
General Nova 1200 computer
and a flatbed graphic plotter.

This plotter includes a freehand
drawing simuiator based
on the artist's normai style of line
drawing. A typical program has two
parts. The first provides
an "environment" consisting
of a given set of digits randomiy
distributed within the celts
of a grid. The program then selects
a succession of digits, exhausting
one number and then moving on
to the next highest, the object
being not to cross an existing tine.
Cohen is interested
in problem-solving strategies
inasmuch as they simulate a structure
common to "art games."

Courtesy, John V/oggamon

Courtesy, Newton Horrtson

I

I

I

! ;

i

! ;

j

1

Each of the four water troughs
in Newton Harrison's "Satt Water
Ecosystem: Brine Shrimp Farm." 1971 ,
has a different degree of safinity
and thus a different cofor, since
the amount of satt affects
the growth properties of the aigae
in them. The troughs are seeded with
brine shrimp, which grow to maturity
in six or seven weeks. After they
arc harvested, the water evaporates
and the satt is coflected.

about nearby exhibits. "Software” also introduced algebraic and set-
theory games played on special display scopes. More than just a
display of electronic technology, "Software" focused on the creation
of aesthetic realizations through communications media. Such a com-
plete ephemeralization of the art object is connected with the idea of
Conceptual Art, which emphasizes that sensory input need not be
related to material art objects but only to an “art proposition” in some
written or diagrammatic form. Closed-circuit television, audio tape
players, environmental sensors, and photography are other forms of
information technology organized to produce art experiences.

"Software" was not without its problems. Programs in the main
computer, a DEC PDP-8, were short-circuited two days before the
opening. The system was not sufficiently reprogrammed and debugged
until just a week before the exhibition closed in New York. Because of
differences of opinion over editing, five of the introductory film loops
were destroyed on the second day of the exhibition and were not re-
placed for two weeks. Art critics were generally critical of "Software”:
commercial trade journals saw it for what it was; some gallery goers
construed it as a threat to the traditional art world. If nothing else,
technological art seems to generate some very human reactions.

The Los Angeles County Museum of Art's "Art and Technology”
program, as of 1972, was the most ambitious exhibition of its kind.
Planned from 1967 by Curator Maurice Tuchman, "Art and Tech-
nology" appeared during the summer of 1971. Tuchman was fortunate
to have the backing of nearly 40 corporations in the southern California
area. In a selection process covering two years, the curator chose
about 30 artists from a worldwide group numbering in the hundreds—
although the final selection of artists was mainly from New York. Most
significant from a planning perspective were "A & T’s” exhaustive
contractual relationships between artist, company, and museum: its
relatively decent budgets for artists: and its attempts to produce a
sustained and practical interchange between artists and the corporate-
industrial sector. Quite aware of the strong antitechnological senti-
ments within the art world, Tuchman and his associates wisely chose a
limited number of entries from some of the biggest names in the Amer-
ican art world: Roy Lichtenstein, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschen-
berg, Tony Smith, and Andy Warhol.

There has been a steady escalation of means within technological
art, and few significant projects are inexpensive. The proposed outlay
for each "A & T” project was S15,000, but it seems certain that several
works at least doubled that. Total costs mentioned for the exhibition
ran upward to SI million. For a profit-making investment such as a
motion picture this would not seem unreasonable, but in the penurious
museum vjorld $50,000 to SI 00.000 is considered the range for a
major show. Although "A & T" produced a fairly successful and
entertaining exhibition, many art critics accused it of selling out,
Disneyland fashion, to large corporations with interests in profits and
war. and of perverting high art "aesthetics."

350

What was evident from the Los Angeles "A & T" effort was a certain
inherent alienation from big technology on the part of the artists. Their
projects either threatened viewers' sensory capacities or reflected the
ironic vein of Chaplin’s 1936 movie Modern Times. Much of the exhibi-
tion was implicitly antagonistic toward the effects of technology. Below
the surface, few of the artists appeared to believe that U.S. corporate
interests, controlling the overwhelming portion of the country’s tech-
nology, have any real sense of social responsibility or direction.

Is it “art”?

Coming back to the original question, can art and technology be recon-
ciled? Do they have a common meeting ground where both perform
according to everyone’s expectations? Technological art that simply

Courtesy, Alon Sonfist

Courtesy, Alan Sonfist

All Alan Sontist’s works deal v/ith
growth, decay, and interdependence.
He sees "sculpture"
in the ecological exchanges that
occur every day and believes
that man-nature stability will come
only when we have become acutely
sensitive to the natural changes
around us. "Crystal Globe." 1968
(left), is a sealed hollow glass
sphere containing natural mineral
crystals. Through the effects
of natural heat and light, some
of the crystals vaporize into
a purplish gas which rises to the top
of the globe and crystallizes
on its inside surface.

"Micro-Organism Window," 1968
(above), appeared in the window of a
New York City art gallery. The artist
coated the glass with an egar-based
substance, and within 48 hours
growth patterns began to appear on it.
In a sense, this is a way
of dramatizing the toxic content
of New York air.

duplicates the results of handcrafted art is in ail respects a trivial
contribution. Moreover, a great selling point of technological inven-
tion, time saving, has little meaning for the real artist. Making art
embodies its own psychological reward. The dilemma of the alienated
office and industrial worker is still a reality: consequently, it is not
surprising that thousands of students enter art schools every year
although the chances that they will find work in their chosen field are
slim. Why does "art" feed the soul and "work," in a modern industrial
society, deaden it?

At a fundamental level, technology serves the same purpose as art.
It provides the link between physical need and social fulfillment. And
while they are probably not inherently antagonistic, after a thousand
years in which they have gradually separated, we have grown to think
of production and research as "practical" while art remains merely
entertaining and provocative. Many of the justifications for earlier art,
/.e., its spirituality, beauty, idealism, and emotional sentiment, no
longer hold true for contemporary work. Where art objects were once
carried through the streets of towns with adoration, the art gallery today
functions as a tame sideshow for an easily jaded public. Perhaps the
greatest victims of the Industrial Revolution, many artists are ridiculed
as industrial "scavengers," more interested in the up-to-date trickery of
modern technology than in its expressive appropriateness.

The artist finds himself in a strange double bind. On the one hand
he knows that rewards in the art world usually go to innovators— just
as they do in the world of business and production. Yet the craving for
"new” effects has reached such a point of absurdity and diminishing
returns that the artist is beginning to question the entire meaning of
stylistic change. If art was once the essence of social stability and
ritual, something has happened during its historical evolution to bring
it to its present state of psychic and social ineffectuality.

One aspect seems to be that art fulfills certain inherent psycho-
logical needs, which, given man's symbol-making propensity, are bio-
logically unique. Making a completed work of art denotes a kind of
cycle. Machines incorporated into art, on the other hand, imply an
infinitely linear event; that is, energy tamed to do man s will. Thus it is
not surprising that little or no machine-driven kinetic art has found
aesthetic acceptance. Machines may be used to make art so that the
resultant object fits into a historic time slot. In such a way, the work of
art is frozen in time. In contrast, many artists have become interested
in the cycles of animal and vegetable growth, weather change, and
ecological stabilization. Here the temporal dimension is repetitive.
Perhaps for very profound reasons, such art appears to embody many
of the technological and craft features developed by European Neo-
lithic cultures between 6000 and 2000 b.c.

Rediscovering wholeness

On one level this represents a rejection of the Industrial Revolution.
Or, pessimistically, we could speculate that art is phasing itself out as

353

(Opposite page) courtesy, Los Angeles County
Museum of Art; (below) courtesy. Jock W. Burnhom

Using the research facilities
of the Container Corp., Tony Smith
designed his massive interior
sculpture (opposite page)
for the 1971 Los Angeles "Art
and Technology" project.

The cavelike structure uses
thousands of assembled tetrahedral
modules. Visually and spatially,
it remains one of the most stunning
experiences in modern sculpture,
although Smith was never satisfied
with the structural solution.

The intense light source in "Heart
Beats Dust" (above), a 1968 work
by Jean Dupuy and Harris Hyman,
is a 250-w quartz element with
shutters and lenses. A very light
red pigment, lithol rubine,
palpitates on a stretched rubber
membrane in time with a continuous
loop tape recording of heartbeats
played through a coaxial speaker
mounted just below it.

The light environment "Tripping"
(above) was created by Jack Burnham
for the Ravinia Art Festival, held
near Chicago in 1969. Two 35-ft
tapes, cemented back to back, are
suspended the length of a room
so that they nearly touch the floor
and are illuminated by normal ns-v
house current. A phosphorescent glow
in materials distributed on the floor
is generated by several ultraviolet
lamps above the tapes. Another
light environment (opposite page),
designed by Newton Harrison
for the Los Angeles "Art
and Technology" project, uses live
plastic cylinders, each filled with
a diflerent gas. An electric
current passed through the cylinders
ionizes the gases, causing each
to glow with a dillerent color.
Changes ol form in the light are
induced by regulating the gas flow.

a meaningful activity, due to our ever increasing commitment to a
rationalized and systems-oriented life-style. The truth probably lies
with neither. The artist may be warning us that many of our tech-
noiogies are dangerously unbalanced, that our waste disposal prac-
tices and use of resources represent massive social pathologies. What
is more, unstable technologies have usually generated new methods
whose instabilities lie farther in the future. While the concept of a
steady-state world remains an impossible dream, many artists intimate
that there is no other alternative. They seem to be saying that art
properly made — that is, work accepted as "art" — embodies ancient
patterns for balanced human behavior.

Some social scientists hold to the possibility that art and ritual are
tied to each other through the same structure of relationships. Conse-
quently, if much of the origin of physical sickness is psychosomatic,
then the medical and, hence, aesthetic function of the shaman in prim-
itive societies may be critical after all. In his book Pigs for the Ancestors,
the anthropologist Roy Rappaport reports on a tribe of hill farmers in
the Central Highlands of New Guinea. Taking all the aspects of their
complex ecological system into consideration, Rappaport decides
that their elaborate cycle of rituals functions as a feedback mechanism
or a kind of spiritual thermostat controlling animal raising, farming
areas, man-land ratios, protein consumption, war-making activities,
human procreation, and other vital activities. Traditionally, Western
culture has sought purely empirical ansv/ers to all of its immediate

Claes Oldenburg's "Giant Icebag"
(opposite page) rises from 7 to 16
ft by means of a hydraulic mechanism.
In this 1968-71 work, Oldenburg,
like Tinguely, is making the comment
that there is something inherently
absurd about both moving sculpture
and icebags. Set against a backdrop
ol three-dimensional plasticized
daisy panels, Andy Warhol's 1 971
work "Rain Machine" (above) drops
"rain" on plastic grass and recycles
the water through clearly visible
Teflon hoses. "Chain of Command,"
1972, by Les Levine (ieft), involves
three stepladders: one with
a television monitor, one with a TV
camera, and one with a slide
projector that shows 80 slides, each
with a different view ot the three
ladders.

Les Levine

357

problems. But as we erode our psychically organized activities such as
the handcrafts, visual art, and ritual itself, we fall in danger of destroy-
ing the human will to act in unison. Given practical material solutions
to pressing social problems, we must begin to ask ourselves if such
solutions embody an artistic-ritual format, or do they further sever
people from their sources of psychic motivation?

The 1970s appears to be a decade in which the artist is beginning to
temper his desire to explore new technologies. A mood of discrimina-
tion is about. Just as the artist began to look like an ineffective manu-
facturer or a parody of the lonely research scientist — thereby denying
his own unique contribution — we are beginning to rediscover his
primal role as the soul’s messenger and coordinator. Since the phi-
losophy of aesthetics began in the 17th century, one thing has been

"Seek," 7969- 70. by the MIT Architecture Machine Croup (above), deals
with small blocks that act as an "environment" lor a colony of gerbils.
These little animals constantly bump into the blocks, thus disrupting
the work of a computer programmed to build the blocks into towers. This
produces a mismatch between the computer's memory and the gerbils
randomizing activities. Robert Rauschenberg's "Mud Muse." 1970-71
(opposite page), is a 9 by 12-tt glass-enclosed vat of driller's mud.
In collaboration v/ith Teledyne for the Los Angeles "Art and Technology
exhibition. Rauschenberg made recorded tapes of bubbling mud and
used them to program a series of air Jets, located beneath the tank, which
sporadically produce bubbles and eruptions.

358

demanded from the artist: that intangible called "quality.” Concerning
past excellence we have developed adequate perspectives and theories
of evaluation. But quality in present art eludes us more than ever. Con-
sequently, we have begun to question the restriction of quality to the
fine arts.

There is a deep longing for a wholeness within our technologies and
their integration into our life rhythms. And we wonder why no systems
analyst has ever been successful in achieving this. Perhaps it lies in
the origins of culture itself. Some realize that quality most essentially
belongs in our attitudes toward nature and our patterns of daily living.
Therefore, a few artists are beginning to reexamine that most complex
of all technologies; the human nervous system and its essential rela-
tion to the world.

Courtesy, Los Angeles County Museum of Art

The NotoriousTrio:
Mercury, Lead,
and Cadmium

by John F. Henahan

Many refinements of modern industry are the result of man’s
increasingly sophisticated use of the earth’s mineral wealth. The
metals mercury, lead, and cadmium have been used with great
success and in such quantities that each in its own way now threatens

man’s health and ultimate well-being.

At the time the earth was formed some 4,500,000,000 years ago, the
metals mercury, lead, and cadmium were more or less safely locked
in the minerals that contained them. About a hundred years ago, man
discovered he could use these metals to make a better material life for
himself, and he began to dig them from the earth. By converting the
crude ores to refined metals or metal-containing compounds and by
manufacturing new products from them, he gradually introduced mil-
lions of pounds of cadmium, lead, and mercury into an environment
in which they did not occur naturally. Because all three metals are ele-

ments they contain atoms of only one kind and, hence, will not be
broken down by chemical forces in the environment. With their con-
centrations pushed much beyond what had been their natural levels,
the three metals began to disturb the balance of nature and by the
1970s their adverse biological properties were being recognized as
threats to man's well-being.

Although each of the three metals has increased steadily in the en-
vironment in proportion to its value to industrial and technological
expansion, each is now seen as a threat to life for different reasons.
Lead has become ubiquitous in land, air, sea, plants, and animals in
direct proportion to the proliferation of the automobile and the gaso-
line it uses as a fuel. The deadly effects of mercury, previously con-
sidered hazardous only to industrial and laboratory workers, have been
magnified ominously with the discovery that by a natural phenomenon
mercury is reacting with organisms in the bodies of water in which it
IS dumped to produce what may well be a common health hazard.

admium, which has so many applications that it is used at twice the
^evel of mercury, is now suspected of being a major contributing factor
e increased incidence of high blood pressure and heart disease.

360

The metals that may threaten man's
well-being pollute in proportion
to their uselulness. Fine particles
discharged from forest product
industries, such as the paper plant
in Mississippi (above), rank second
only to those of coat-fired power
producers and are believed to include
traces of the mercury found in pulp
and its bleaching agents. Of all
atmospheric emissions tram industries,
45% are estimated to come from those
processing CBdmium-bearing ores,
such as the copper being poured into
molds at a Nevada mine (opposite
page). Metallic runoff directly into
water supplies has been curtailed,
but little is known of the amounts
of metals in particulate emissions
and of their eventual dispersal
in the environment.

JOHN F. HENAHAN. a science writer
for Intellectual Digest, is the author of
Mon and Molecules.

Mercury; messenger of death?

Only within the last ten years has man come to realize that the un-
counted millions of pounds of mercury wastes previously believed to
be safely resting at the bottom of the world’s oceans, lakes, and rivers
are slowly being converted into a toxic form called methyl mercury
that has already had drastic effects on birds, fish, and other animals
including man. Methyl mercury is formed by the combination of an
inorganic mercury compound with a one-carbon organic molecule,
an action that can be precipitated by the organisms in bodies of wafer.
It is seen as a special threat to man because it has a long biological
half-life (about 70 days in man) compared to the inorganic forms of
mercury, which are usually excreted from the body in a few days. Methyl
mercury s bad reputation is fortified by the fact that it easily passes
through biological membranes, including the barrier that separates
the brain from the rest of the body. The compound is particularly de-
structive to nerve cells, and early symptoms of methyl mercury poison-
ing include headache and fatigue. These are followed by sensitivity
loss in toes and fingers, visual disorders, poor muscular coordination,
speech and hearing difficulties, mental retardation, and death.

Mercury is not normally dangerous in its natural liquid metal form,
although scattered deaths have occurred when industrial workers have
inhaled its vaporized fumes. Inorganic mercury compounds, such as
mercuric chloride, have been used to commit suicide, and workers in
felt hat factories have been driven literally "mad as a hatter" by the
mercuric nitrate used to improve the felting properties of wool. There
have also been many deaths and Illnesses recorded in the various in-
dustries that mine, manufacture, or use mercury. These cases, how-
ever, have never been seen as serious enough to pose an international
threat to human health. Industries using the inorganic mercury com-
pounds have felt no qualms about dumping wastes containing them
'n o lakes and rivers, where they were presumed to settle safely.

362

Pooto Koch from Rapho-Guillumette

Within the 20th century, about 163 million pounds of mined mercury
have been used; according to the U.S. Bureau of Mines, between 1959
and 1969 mercury consumption in the U.S. doubled to more than 6 mil-
lion pounds annually. The greatest single use of mercury is as a com-
ponent in the electrodes that prepare high-purity sodium hydroxide
and chlorine gas from brine solutions to meet needs of the petroleum,
glass, paper, and detergent industries. Mercury is also used in catalysts
for the manufacture of the versatile plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
and is being used increasingly in specialized electrical applications,
such as silent switches, arc rectifiers, high-intensity street lamps, and
batteries for transistor radios. Mercury or its compounds is also used
for making amalgams for dental fillings, for temperature and pres-
sure control devices, in mildew-resistant paints, in agriculture as a
seed sterilant, and in medicine as antibacterial agents (for example,
mercurochrome).

Each of these applications is responsible to a greater or lesser extent
for the increased presence of mercury in the environment. About one
third of all mined mercury cannot be accounted for and is presumed
to have been dispersed. Poor pollution control techniques used in
smelters and ore-refining plants and in the chloralkali and PVC in-
dustries have been major contributing factors to mercury contamina-
tion: runoff from farms treated with mercury fungicides has been
another: and simple carelessness in industry, dental office, laboratory,
and home has also contributed. In addition, the burning of coal, oil,
and lignite, which contain traces of mercury, spews a million or so
pounds of the metal into the air every year, perhaps more than is re-
leased by any other means.

The methyl mercury crisis

The current concern over methyl mercury pollution can be traced to
1953 when residents of Minamata, a fishing village in Japan, reported

363

' Dr. J. AA. Wood, University of Illinois

Poisonous methyl mercury is formed
by the chemical reaction of the less
harmful inorganic form of mercury
with an organic molecule. University
of Illinois biochemists established
that microorganisms commonly found
in bodies of water can accomplish
this synthesis. One such organism,
Methanobacterium formicicum, is
shown above as It appears under a
phase contrast microscope, which is
used to reveal details not visible under
a normal microscope.

strange omens: cats ran screaming into the sea and crows fell from the
sky. Soon after, Minamatans began to complain of aching muscles and
distorted vision in which they appeared to be seeing through a long
tube. Then a father and his young son went mad and died. In the next
nine years, another 110 persons up and down the coast of Minamata
Bay developed the same symptoms and 36 died. Some survivors were
left blind and deaf, and many children were born with what came to be
known as "Minamata disease.” In 1965, the disease broke out in the
Japanese city of Niigata; 50 residents became ill, 16 died, and many
babies seemed to be affected by the disease.

In Minamata, physicians began to recognize that the symptoms of
the strange disease were very much like methyl mercury poisoning.
Their suspicion was strengthened when they learned that a PVC plant
nearby was pouring large amounts of mercuric chloride into the bay
and that all victims of the disease— including the cats and crows— ate
fish from the bay as a major portion of their diet. (A PVC plant was also
located in Niigata.) Originally, Japanese scientists speculated that the
normally innocuous mercuric chloride had somehow been converted
to toxic methyl mercury, perhaps by bacterial action in the water, but
they learned later that the electrodes of the chemical plant contained
appreciable amounts of methyl mercury.

Sediment near the Minamata plant was shown to contain two million
parts per billion (ppb) mercury, while mercury in the bay water itself
ranged from 1 .6 ppb to 3.6 ppb, compared to natural background levels
of from 0.3 ppb to 2.0 ppb. It was also learned that fish and shellfish
eaten by the residents of Minamata and Niigata had somehow con-
centrated the mercury (predominantly in the form of methyl mercury)
in their bodies at levels of 5-6 parts per million (ppm), about 100 times
the 0.05 ppm the World Health Organization (WHO) considers the
irreducible minimum of mercuric residue and 10 times the 0.5 ppm
"interim guideline” suggested in 1970 by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).

Methyl mercury poisoning cropped up in a different guise in Sweden
in the early ig60s when conservationists observed population drops
among many seed-eating birds, including pheasants and partridges,
and among their predators. The decline was linked to an agricultural
seed sterilant (methyl mercury dicyanodiamide), which had been in
use in Sweden for more than 20 years. Apparently, the birds fed heavily
on treated seeds and were poisoned. Sweden forbade the use of the
compound in early 1966, and the bird population began to return to
normal levels.

Three years later several members of a family in Alamogordo, N.M.,
came down with what appeared to be various stages of methyl mercury
poisoning after they had eaten the meat of a hog that accidentally had
been fed grain (millet seed) treated with the methyl mercury seed steri-
lant. Although the family was treated quickly with various metal-
scavenging drugs, one child went blind and two others developed brain
damage. The condition of a fourth child born after the mother had

364

sources of compounds used in formation

compounds used in formation where available to microorganisms

combined !
biochemically byi
microorganisms ;
into poisonous
methyl mercury {

eaten the contaminated pork remained uncertain. Shortly after the
Alamogordo poisonings, the U.S. Department of Agriculture banned
the use of methyl mercury fungicides but the manufacturer obtained a
court injunction permitting the chemical to remain in use.

Despite the mercury-linked disasters in Japan, Sweden, and the U.S.,
response remained minimal until March 1970 when Norvald Fimreite,
a chemist at the University of Western Ontario, found that commercial
shipments of fish from Lake St. Clair (near Detroit) contained mercury
close to the levels found in the fish involved in the Minamata and
Niigata episodes. The Canadian government quickly closed its side of
the lake to commercial fishing and warned residents against eating
fish from the lake. Other chemists reported similarly high levels (about
7 ppm) in fish from many other lakes and rivers along the U.S. -Cana-
dian border, including the Great Lakes, and, subsequently, from the
waters of 33 of the 50 U.S. states. Many lakes and rivers were closed to
fishing, and localities lost considerable revenues from tourism and
license fees. In most cases chloralkali plants or pulp and paper pro-
cessors were located on or near the polluted waters (the sodium hy-
droxide used in paper processing contains residual mercury). Prodded
by quick action by then U.S. Secretary of the Interior Walter J. Hickel
and several suits filed by the U.S. Justice Department, industries cut
their mercury flow to a trickle.

The scope of the mercury pollution problem broadened throughout
1970 and 1971: Levels of mercury (primarily other than methyl mercury)
in a range of Canadian foodstuffs, including bread, beef, and chicken,
were almost invariably determined to be higher than the WHO mini-
mum. The discovery that much tunafish and swordfish sold in the U.S.
contained mercury (almost entirely methyl mercury) in excess of the

The potential lor widespread methyl
mercury contamination is enhanced
by many kinds of industrial pollution.
Carbon dioxide, organic wastes,
nitrates, and phosphates provide
food lor the organisms that permit
transformation of inorganic mercury
runoff from industries into methyl
mercury. Following alarming reports
in 1970, U.S, and Canadian industries
virtually eliminated the flow of new
mercury into lakes and rivers.
Nonetheless, enough remained in
some sediment to permit methylation
to continue for generations. Some
control might be accomplished by
limiting the entry of the carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphate compounds
into the water, which, in turn, would
limit growth of the microorganisms.

365

Jon Brenneis

Various scientific efforts attempt
to assess the effects of high levels
of metals in different environments.

Above, salmon are raised in tanks
with concentrations of heavy metals
to establish whether contamination
of the fresh water where salmon breed
will affect their ability to survive their
transition to the salt water where they
will live most of their lives. At the right,
researchers lower a sample of hair
from Alaskan Aleuts into a nuclear
reactor where it will be bombarded
with neutrons so that traces of mercury
in the hair can be measured. Hair is
known to reflect the presence of
poisonous metals in the body. The
Aleuts were found to be ingesting
very high levels of mercury with
their food.

Chuck Rogers from Block Star

FDA safety level, resulted in the temporary withdrawal of some brands
of canned tunafish and the virtual destruction of the U.S. swordfish
industry. A New York physician found that a woman patient on a weight-
reducing diet involving heavy intake of swordfish had symptoms typical
of methyl mercury poisoning. Aleutian Eskimos were advised to dis-
continue their traditional practice of eating the livers of Alaskan fur
seals and vitamin supplements made from seal liver were forced off the
market because of their excessive mercury levels.

The most frightening aspect of mercury pollution, according to many
scientists, is that there is an enormous reservoir of the metal on the
bottoms of lakes and rivers waiting to be converted by microbial action
into the deadly methyl mercury. The methyl mercury is absorbed by
phytoplankton, which are eaten by small fish. As the small fish are
devoured by larger fish, which are then eaten by man, methyl mercury
contamination spreads throughout the food chain. John Wood, a Uni-
versity of Illinois biochemist who was among those who proved that
the transformation of inorganic mercury to methyl mercury occurs,
estimates that it will take about 5,000 years for microorganisms to
eliminate all the 200,000 pounds of mercury now known to be in Lake
St. Clair sediments.

A number of researchers have found that preserved fish— some as
much as 2,000 years old— have as much mercury in them as today's
"contaminated" fish. Some scientists interpret this finding to mean
that the hazards of being poisoned because of the current mercury
content of fish is overrated. Others maintain that this implies that there
may be a vast natural reservoir of mercury, which, when coupled with
man's mercury contribution, only means that more methyl mercury
may be being formed than is currently believed.

Problems of mercury control

Many scientists are questioning the security offered by the FDA’s 0.5
ppm guideline, preferring the much lower WHO minimum level. En-

366

vironmentalist Barry Commoner, for example, insists that the FDA
guideline is far too narrow when compared with safety margins applied
to other toxic materials. Wood argues that the current practice of mea-
suring "total mercury" in foods is pointless because it does not dis-
tinguish between inorganic and methyl mercury. Even though Swedish
scientists have established that most of the mercury m fish is methyl
mercury, Wood maintains it is possible that the high levels of mercury
in other foods may be inorganic and, therefore, much less hazardous.
The mercury standards also appear to be questionable when eating
habits are taken into account. Wood suggests that if Americans and
Canadians ate fish as often as the Japanese in Minamata do, methyl
mercury poisoning might be rampant in North America.

Safety thresholds for mercury are as vague as they are because it is
not known just how much methyl mercury in the blood is required
before poisoning occurs. Although death has occurred when mercury
levels in blood reached 1.4 ppm, some populations have shown no
symptoms of poisoning when mercury levels were as high as those
of other populations showing overt symptoms. Neurological damage
may occur at levels as low as 0.4 -1.0 ppm of mercury, but little is known
about v;hat else happens at or below those levels. Treatment for mer-
cury poisoning is even less well-defined. Physicians have used peni-
cillin derivatives and agents for countering the effects of poison gas
with uncertain success. In 1 971 , hov/ever, T. W. Clarkson of the Univer-
sity of Rochester, N.Y., reported that ion exchange resins similar to
those used in water conditioners increased the rate of mercury excre-
tion in laboratory animals.

Several methods, in addition to the better industrial controls, have
been suggested to prevent the inorganic mercury-methyl mercury
transformation. One obvious method would be to dredge the mercury
from lake sediments. But, when that approach was tried in Minamata
Bay, the sediments were stirred and inorganic mercury was spread over
a v/ider area. The amount of methyl mercury actually increased. Cover-
ing the sediments v/ith nonmercury-containing ores has also been tried
on a moderate scale with some success. The best method, suggests
Wood, might be to prevent the growth of the microbes needed for
methyl mercury formation. This could be done by reducing the amount
of phosphates and nitrogen compounds that normally promote micro-
bial growth.

An emission spectrograph measures
the presence of metals in water. Metal
traces are isolated when water in the
porcelain tray is vaporized by a spark
from a graphite-arc device.

The lead problem

Man has been poisoning himself v;ith lead for as long as he has known
how to extract it from the earth. Romans are known to have died or
gone insane from the lead oxide used to reduce the acidity of their
wines. In the Massachusetts Bay Colony, settlers were poisoned when
they drank rum distilled in lead vessels. In modern times, children are
poisoned by nibbling the peeling paint of old buildings and adults can
die from the poisoning effects of lead-bearing bullets rather than from
the wounds they inflict. Other cases of lead poisoning appear wherever

367

Courtesy, Dr. Derek J. Cripps, University of V/Isconsin

Industrial activity is responsible for
the increased presence of lead in the
body as well as in remote parts of the
earth. Even exposure to quite low
levels of lead produces changes in the
synthesis of porphyrins, substances
needed for the production of
hemoglobin in red blood cells. In
certain solutions, porphyrins show
an intense red fluorescence, which is
captured (above) in a highly specialized
type of microphotograph. Far below
the entrance to a tunnel driven into
the permanent snowfields of Antarctica
(opposite page), amounts of lead in
ice and snow samples were found to
have increased steadily with the
passage of time. The largest increase
occurred after the introduction
of tetraethyl lead into gasoline in 1923 .

lead or some of its more toxic compounds are manufactured, inhaled,
ingested, or added to the air.

Lead poisoning is one of the most unpleasant ailments afflicting
mankind. Yet, many of its symptoms are deceptively commonplace
and often misdiagnosed as lesser problems, such as headache, diar-
rhea, or just plain irritability. As the lead reaches its as yet poorly de-
fined toxic level in the body, the symptoms of poisoning become more
characteristic and lead to wild delirium, coma, convulsions, blindness,
mental retardation, brain damage, and death.

Every one million pounds of the earth’s crust contains an average of
16 pounds of lead, usually in one of its three major mineral forms, lead
sulfide, lead carbonate, or lead sulfate. Man has a great hunger for this
lead. In the United States about 590,000 tons were mined in 1969, pri-
marily in Missouri, Idaho, and Utah. Another 500,000 tons of lead scrap
were recovered, usually from automobile storage batteries, and 250,000
tons were imported.

Lead ores are usually concentrated by a process called ore flotation
and then sent to smelters and refineries to be converted into pig lead.
In each part of the process, some lead is lost to the environment. It is
spewed into the air through the giant stacks of the smelters or washed
into rivers and streams adjacent to mining sites. Later it may be lost
into the air, water, and soil in the course of any number of manufactur-
ing processes that use or produce lead-containing materials.

Lead is also dispersed throughout the atmosphere in volcanic erup-
tions. in sea spray, and in the dust and smoke of occasional forest fires.
Such natural sources of lead pollution existed long before man ap-
peared, but it is now clear that the polluting effect of man’s use of lead
has far outstripped the natural background levels of lead in the world.
C. C. Patterson of the California Institute of Technology measured lead
levels in ice samples collected from Greenland, with the realization that
the deeper the ice was the older it would be. In ice presumed to have
368

Courtesy, Or Clair C. Potferson

been formed about 500 b.c. he found approximately eight grams of
lead per ton of ice. Obviously, this lead could only have been intro-
duced by natural processes. The lead levels in ice samples formed in
1950 were found to have increased to 90 grams per ton and to have
risen again to 210 grams per ton by 1965. Such sudden increases are
hardly the result of natural phenomena. In another study. Henry A.
Schroeder and his colleagues at the Dartmouth Medical School, Han-
over, N.H., measured the lead levels in the rings of an elm free growing
about 150 feet from a lightly travelled street. They found that the lead
content per million parts of wood had increased from about 0.16 in
rings dating from the mid-19th century to 3.90 in rings formed in 1960.

As with most of the environmental contaminants that now appear to
plague man and threaten his future, lead pollutes more or less in direct
proportion to the amount being used, even though different forms of
lead pollute in different ways and to different extents. The two major
sources of current lead pollution problems are related to the rise of the
automobile and the internal combustion engine. In the U.S.. most lead
goes into the production of storage batteries in automobiles. Lead
consumption for this purpose tripled from 1934 to nearly 600 million
tons in 1970. Although, fortunately, most of this lead is recycled to
make new batteries, battery lead makes up about 10% of the lead now
being added to the environment.

The second major use for lead, and by all odds the greatest contrib-
utor of lead to the atmosphere, is in tetraethyl lead (TEL), an especially
poisonous organic chemical used since 1923 as an antiknock additive
to upgrade gasoline. Use of TEL increased phenomenally when it was
found that it could enhance gasoline octane sufficiently to power
modern high-compression engines. In 1970, 275.506 tons of lead, or
anywhere from 2.5 to 4.0 grams of TEL per gallon of high-test gasoline,
were added to gasolines in the United States: 50 years ago. essentially
no lead was used for this purpose. Unlike battery lead, the lead in TEL

369

cannot be recycled, and is expelled into the atmosphere at the rate of
200,000 tons a year; the rest remains behind in the automobile's lubri-
cating oil or exhaust system, where it prevents buildup of harmful iron
oxide particles. In fact, lead from automobile exhausts accounts for
94.8% of the lead in the air we breathe, compared to 0.5% contributed
by smelter stacks.

Toxicologists and pathologists are particularly concerned about the
lead from automobile exhausts because it enters the air as extremely
fine particles averaging 0,25 microns in diameter (one micron = 0.001
millimeter), which can be inhaled easily. When inhaled, about 45% of
the lead from auto exhausts is absorbed into the lungs and then distrib-
uted throughout the rest of the body via the bloodstream; in contrast,
the body retains only about 5-10% of the lead ingested with food.

Dangers of lead in the atmosphere

Very little is yet known about the effects of low-level exposure to lead,
the kind of exposure persons breathing urban air may be experiencing
daily, and the kind that poses a long-range threat to man, since lead
is known to accumulate in the body, frequently in the bones, with ad-
vancing age. There is some evidence that low levels of lead inhibit the
formation of an important blood enzyme, delta-aminolevulinic acid
dehydrase (ALA-dehydrase), which aids in the synthesis of hemoglobin,
the oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells. Without better evi-
dence of this or other ill effects of low-level exposure, it remains diffi-
cult to establish reliable safety standards for lead in the human body.

There is little doubt, however, that the .automobile is adding heavily
to the danger of widespread low-level intoxication. In some large U.S.
cities, such as Los Angeles and New York, lead concentration in the
air is 20 times greater than it is in sparsely populated areas, and 2,000
times greater than it is in the uncluttered atmosphere above the mid-
Pacific. In a report in 1971, the National Research Council of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences warned that traffic policemen at busy in-
tersections, gasoline service station attendants, mid-city dwellers, and,
especially, young children living in cities are potential victims of lead
poisoning from the air. Recent surveys of children, and, in some cases,
adults, in several large cities have found 40-60 micrograms of lead per
gram of blood. This is about half the level known to cause clinical lead
poisoning in adults in many well-documented cases. It is also well
documented that children are more susceptible to lead intoxication
than adults.

Getting the lead out

In 1970, gasoline and automobile manufacturers responded to the
growing public clamor for controls on lead emissions. The gasoline
manufacturers came out with low or no-lead grades of fuel, and the
automobile makers redesigned the engines used in 1971 models so
that they could handle the new gasolines. At the same time, federal,
state, and municipal governments enacted legislation demanding de-

370

creases in lead levels to 1.7 grams per gallon or less by 1975. The auto-
mobile manufacturers were not reluctant to cooperate. They realized,
among other factors, that if lead were still being used at 1970 levels in
1975 cars, the catalytic antismog devices they are compelled to develop
by that date to meet federal standards will not operate properly.

However, the good and bad aspects of the new low-lead or no-lead
gasolines were still being debated m 1972. The new gasolines usually
have a lower octane rating (about 91) than leaded gasoline (about 100)
and they do not perform well in older cars, some of which will still be
on the road in 1980. (Octane rating is an arbitrary measure of a gaso-
line’s resistance to knocking and indirectly of its performance.) If the
gasoline industry were to produce lead-free gasolines that would meet
the needs of older cars, these highly refined gasolines would contain
more hydrocarbons of the olefin and aromatic type, which could cause
more eye-smarting smog than leaded gasolines do. The industry esti-
mates that such a conversion would cost it S4 billion-$5 billion and
add 4-5 cents to the consumer's per gallon gasoline costs. Manu-
facturers of TEL (Ethyl Corp. and E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.) assert
that valves wear out quickly without TEL. Others point out that when
lead is removed, mufflers, rings, cylinders, and exhaust control devices
work better and longer and result in overall gasoline cost reductions
of nearly two cents a gallon.

Although smelters, ore refineries, and other lead-using industries
are also responsible for the increase in environmental lead, most of
these industries are close-mouthed about how much lead they dis-
charge, how they control it, and how much their abatement measures
cost. Currently they use a variety of filters, precipitators, separators,
and scrubbers, some of which are as much as 99% effective. Actual
performance, however, depends to a great extent on how seriously the
individual plant takes its lead control responsibilities. As for lead pollu-
tion of water supplies, a recent report prepared by the University of
Illinois notes that standard water treatment processes in use in the
United States can keep lead in the country's drinking water at a safe
level (less than 50 micrograms per liter).

Cadmium: the most lethal metal?

Of the metals that may pose threats to human health, cadmium can be
singled out as the most lethal, even though its ill effects have not been
studied as painstakingly or completely as those of lead or mercury.
Cadmium’s deadliness comes from its known ability to build up in the
body, especially in the kidneys, and its link, at least statistically, to
hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart disease. In animals, even
small dosages have produced brain damage, birth defects, damage to
the reproductive organs, blood abnormalities, and many other physio-
logical disturbances. In man, inhalation of cadmium dust is known to
have caused lung damage resembling emphysema. The Japanese
Ministry of Health and Welfare has reported that since 1962 cadmium
from rriine wastes have contaminated food and water supplies in parts

Courtesy. Dr J Koboyoshi. Ol^oyoma University

Chronic cadmium poisoning was
biamed lor the contrast between the
backbone ot a normai young carp (top)
and that ol an abnormat one (bottom),
as seen in X-ray photographs. The
abnormal lish was raised in water
containing a high concentration ol
cadmium. Its bones show the same
damage noted among sulferers ol
Itai-ltar disease in Japan: a loss ol
calcium leaves the bones transparent
and severely soltened. so that they
collapse under slight pressure.

371

r'e-'V', Or J Koboyashi, Okciyama University

The incidence ot Itai-ltai disease was
limited to inhabitants ot low rice
fields irrigated by a river carrying the
waste waters ot a mine producing
zinc, lead, and cadmium. The farmers
blamed the mine's wastes tor damage
to their rice crop (above; but did not
connect the simultaneous appearance
of disease among their families with
their use of the river's water in their
kitchens (opposite page) After 1955,
when a dam began collecting the
mine's wastes, crops returned to
normal and the number of Itai-ltai
cases dropped rapidly.

of northern Japan and led to more than 220 cases of a severe degenera-
tive bone disease, called Itai-ltai, or "It hurts! It hurts!” after the cries
of patients suffering the severe pain that results. The disease has killed
50 people who were first exposed to cadmium discharges during or
after World War II. The cause of the disease was not recognized until
1955 and, by that time, many sufferers had become hopeless cripples.

A study carried out for the National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion (NAPCA) of the Environmental Protection Agency showed that
about 13,328,000 pounds of cadmium were used in 1968 and that about
4,600,000 pounds of that were vented into the air. Consumption of
cadmium and its discharge into the atmosphere can only have in-
creased since 1968, since the industries that use it and its compounds
have expanded. According to the NAPCA report most of the cadmium
in the air is vented in the form of cadmium oxides and sulfides from
smelters that refine cadmium-containing ores of lead, zinc, and copper.
In 1968, about 2.1 million pounds of the cadmium delivered to the air
came from ore processing and refining sources. Almost the same
amount was produced as a result of the recycling of cadmium-plated
iron and steel. Other sources of air-borne cadmium are scrapped auto-
mobile radiators, the incineration of plastic wastes, tire wear, combus-
tion of motor oil, compounding of cadmium pigments and plastic
stabilizers, preparation of cadmium alloys, and cadmium-containing
fertilizers and pesticides. Cities closest to smelters and metallurgical
industries usually bear the brunt of cadmium pollution of the air. Their
water supplies are probably also polluted by cadmium, but no com-
prehensive measurements of this type have been made.

Toxicologists are concerned about cadmium as a hazard to man's
health not just because of its well known effects on the kidneys and
lungs but also because it appears to build up in the kidneys and other
organs to concentrations equivalent to those known to shorten life
and cause hypertension in rats. Dartmouth's Schroeder found more
cause for alarm in the human situation when he measured higher levels
of cadmium in the kidneys of patients who died from hypertension than
in patients who died from cancer, hepatitis, or diabetes.

Because there is so little irrefutable evidence about the long-range
effects of less than obviously toxic exposure to cadmium, health offi-
cials have been slow to set up standard levels for it in air, food, and
water. A joint FDA/WHO commission has suggested but never estab-
lished a maximum permissible level in food of 5 ppm (compared to 0.5
ppm for mercury), even though concerned scientists, notably Robert
Nilsson of the Swedish Natural Science Research Council, insist that
animal studies and the Japanese cadmium poisoning incidents make
that level much too high. To date, the United States has established the
maximum permissible amount of cadmium in drinking water as 0.01
ppm. Measurements of the metal’s presence in rivers and reservoirs
throughout the country carried out by the U.S. Geological Survey in-
dicated that 33 out of 720 water samples tested were higher in cadmium
than the prescribed level. The implications of these higher levels are

372

not clear, but some scientists give them an ominous interpretation
since cadmium has proved to be such a frightening poison.

The metal crisis and the future

Discovery of the possible hazards evolving from the increasing amounts
of mercury, lead, and cadmium in man's environment has triggered
investigations of three other likely metallic hazards; nickel, zinc, and
arsenic. Nickel, for example, has been found to have a proven ability
to induce cancer. But, compared with what is known of the three
notorious metals, very little has been established about any current or
potential environmental impact of the others.

For mercury, if the most pessimistic predictions are correct, the
potential for danger to mankind is growing every day. Even if the most
effective methods for controlling further mercury discharges were put
into practice overnight, millions of pounds of inorganic mercury would
remain in lake and river sediments waiting to be converted to the lethal
methyl form. An optimist might decide that the Minamata experience,
the Swedish bird crisis, and the New Mexican disaster were only scat-
tered incidents of carelessness and poor planning. If so, and if present
levels of mercury contamination are not a long-range threat to the
world’s health, the optimist will have his day and so will mankind. The
question is, how many are willing to gamble their futures on ifs ?

The solution to the lead problem may be easier. Many authorities
believe that if lead is removed from gasoline, the back of the lead pollu-
tion problem will be broken. Automobile owners may then have to
settle for less powerful cars, but may gain longer lives in exchange.

Cadmium may be the most lethal member of the three notorious
metals, but, for the most part, its environmental impact is unknown
and befogged by inconclusive data. Perhaps the most that can be said
about it at this time is that the enormous amounts of such a deadly
metal that are now in the air will probably not improve anyone s health.

Confronted as the deadly trio they are already known to be, mercury,
lead, and cadmium represent but one example of how man has altered
his relationships with the earth and indirectly impaired his health and
well-being. Once, each of the three metals occupied its niche in the
balance of nature. Man removed them from the earth in great volume
and distributed them unthinkingly into parts of the physical environ-
ment where they never really belonged. This may represent a small
aspect of the current ecological crisis, but in the case of these three
metals, it is certainly an ominous one.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING:

Chisolm, J. Julian, Jr., "Lead Poisoning." Scientific American (Feb-
ruary 1971).

Environment, issue on mercury (May 1969): issue on mercury (May
1971): issue on lead (June 1971).

McCaull J.. “Building a Shorter Life," Environment (September 1 971 ).

Schroeder,’ H. A., "Metals in the Air," Environment (October 1971).

373

Crime Fighters

in the
Laboratory

by Alexander Joseph

Backmg up the modern defective is an armory of advanced scientific
techniques undreamed of by Arthur Conan Doyle in his wildest

flights of fancy.

Detection is, or ought to be, an exact science,
and should be treated in the same cold and
unemotional manner.

—Sherlock Holmes in The Sign of Four

The potential of science and technology in law enforcement was first
recognized almost a century ago. Institutionally, it was introduced
through the Assay Office of Scotland Yard. Dramatically, it was intro-
duced through Sherlock Holmes in the narratives of Sir Arthur Conan
Doyle. By the turn of the century. Holmes was triumphantly the image
of the scientific defective — the cerebral man instead of the merely
muscular one. In the real world, the Assay Office set the precedent for
police departments throughout the world, which were to move from
fingerprint identification — then a radically new procedure — and paraf-
fin tests to emission spectrography, analytical gas chromatography,
and X-ray diffraction. The "basic" police-lab sciences of chemistry,
biology, and physics quickly became allied with the technologies of
electronics, wide-spectrum photography, and light- and sound-wave
mechanics.

In the last few years, the style, tone, and range of the science and
technology of law enforcement have been given an enormous new
thmsf and a vast new urgency. These were generated in part by appro-
priations of the U.S. Congress, made in the 1960s to assist further and
eeper research into the subject. They were complemented by the
arketing mechanisms of U.S. private industry, v/hich developed
ane devices in the 1960s — mostly for use in the Vietnam war — and
v/as ater impelled to seek alternative outlets for them.

374

ALEXANDER JOSEPH is a professor
3nd director of the Forensic Science
Program at the John Jay College
of Criminal Justice at the
City University of New York.

Here, for example, are some of the devices and procedures that
emerged from the Vietnam war to become part of the science and
technology of law enforcement:

• Unmanned, remote-controlled aircraft equipped to pick up signals
from ground sensors are being used by the U.S. Border Patrol to fly
over isolated stretches of the Mexican-U.S. border. The system was
initially designed for an anti-infiltration program in Indochina. The
drone picks up signals from hundreds of sensors, adapted from de-
vices used to detect the sounds and vibrations of troops and trucks
moving along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. In this way, an enormous stretch
of isolated border can be patrolled, without human personnel, in a
very short time.

Moreover, the information thus gathered can be relayed instantly
to a computer that will sift and collate it. In the past, it took days, weeks,
or even months before human patrolmen scouting the same area could
get their reports analyzed to see if there was a recognizable pattern of
illicit traffic across the border. Now the same work can be done in
microseconds. Border patrolmen can be dispatched to a scene while
suspected offenders are still in the vicinity. There is one difficulty, how-
ever; the system detects movements, but it does not say who, or what,
caused them. A wandering burro is as likely as a drug smugglerto send
officers of the U.S. Border Patrol rushing to their jeeps.

• A “no-light" technology allows police officers to see suspects and
other persons with great clarity at night, no matter how dim the light.
The technology is based on a method of amplifying light levels as much
as 40,000 times: even the light from a single star can be amplified
satisfactorily for use in this system. Perfected to meet the need of the
U.S. military for detecting night-fighting guerrillas in Vietnam, the
"snooperscope" is now used by some big-city police departments
against snipers and in other instances where night vision is required.

A more general adaptation of the technology involves the use of
either still photography or closed-circuit television. The latter permits
constant surveillance of many locations at night, even from long dis-
tances. Such a system is being used to scan the streets of Mount
Vernon, N.Y. Its designers say that it is capable of discerning a man-
sized object in extreme darkness from more than half a mile away.
Thus, it holds promise of relieving the enduring problem of police
patrols— that a crime may take place unseen at a location far from the
area the squad car is patrolling.

• A "black box" device has been developed that gives radar an X-ray
quality, permitting it to suggest who, or what, is behind walls. (Nor-
mally, the radar signal bounces back as soon as it encounters an ob-
struction.) The device, about the size of a cigar box and weighing less
than 10 pounds, was originally conceived as a foliage-penetration
surveillance system for use in Vietnam. In law enforcement, it can help
to determine nighttime occupancy of supposedly “vacant" buildings
— such as banks or vrarehouses — or the potential for ambush in a
building that must be entered by police officers.

376

To be sure, not all of the new law-enforcement technology is the
product of the Vietnam war. For years an enormous stockpile of tech-
nological know-how has been building up that is just beginning to be
applied to police work. It ranges from aerosol clouds that reflect light
from searchlights and can be used to illuminate large areas at night
to agents and devices, such as the chemical Mace and rubber bullets,
that incapacitate but do not kill, to helicopters.

Some of the technologies have become established parts of the
police armamentarium. Others are still controversial. Taken together
they are revolutionizing police work.

Voiceprints: identification through the spoken word

According to the developers of the voiceprint system, no two persons
have the same resonant cavities; thus, the voice pattern of each person
is highly individual and can be used to identify the person in much the
same way that fingerprints are used. Employing a machine called the
sound spectrograph, researchers can graph the frequency, loudness,
and other characteristics of the human voice. The graph— the voice-
print — is said to reveal the distinctive characteristics of each voice. The
status of the voiceprint as legal evidence is still a matter of dispute,
although it has been admitted as evidence in some cases. Its potential
importance is indicated by those cases in which it has played a part.

One spring night in 1970, for example, police headquarters in St.
Paul, Minn., received an anonymous phone call seeking help at a cer-
tain address for a woman who was about to give birth. A squad car was
rushed to the address, but the policemen found only a darkened build-
ing. As they explored the area, a sniper suddenly opened fire and one
of the policemen was shot and mortally wounded.

The only clue was the tape recording of the original call for help. The
police kept that tape, developed its voiceprint, then began interviewing
a number of women who lived in the neighborhood of the shooting.
They recorded each response in an effort to get a voiceprint that
matched the one from the phone call. Among the first 13 women inter-
viewed, they found a suspect: an 18-year-old girl whose voiceprint
exactly matched that on the tape recording. She was subsequently
indicted and brought to trial for first-degree murder.

Another case in which a voiceprint proved crucial began as a civil
suit. A businessman was sued for breach of contract, and the funda-
mental evidence against him consisted of an ordinary tape recording.
The defendant asserted that he had never made any of the statements
or promises that were recorded on the tape. This suggested that the
man was lying or that the voice on the tape was an impersonation.

To determine the truth, the defendant was asked to speak into the
microphone of a voiceprinter. He agreed readily. The voiceprinter
showed his voice pattern was clearly different from that on the original
tape, even though the words used in both cases were exactly the same.
The result: the civil suit against the defendant was dismissed and a
charge of fraud was entered against his accusers.

377

X rays leave the laboratory

Improving technology has made it possible to devise portable, low-
voltage X-ray equipment that can be taken into the field. One such
system, packed into a small box— about the size of an old-fashioned
4x5 inch press camera— and operated by a low-voltage battery, is
virtually revolutionizing the technique of "lifting" latent fingerprints.
These are prints taken from a surface that a person has touched. They
are called latent because, unlike inked fingerprints taken directly from
a person, they are not visible to the naked eye and must be "developed”
by various scientific techniques. Historically, the methods used in
developing latent prints involved the use of various powders or of
chemicals such as iodine, silver nitrate, or Ninhydrin. The prints, when
discovered, would be "lifted" off the surface, usually by applying a
sticky tape to the chemically treated print. At the police laboratory, a
photograph would be made of the tape and the film developed and
delivered to a fingerprint division for identification.

This procedure had frustrating limits, however. Prints could not be
developed satisfactorily after even a relatively short time had passed.
Nor could they be lifted easily off all surfaces. Often the tape could not
be applied to— or pulled off of— surfaces with a rough texture or a ten-
dency to adhere or tear when the tape was lifted, such as clothing,
paper, or skin. Thus, seven decades after fingerprint identification
came into wide use, police departments still relied on prints left on
smooth, hard surfaces: glass, polished wood, metal surfaces, and so
forth. Not too long ago. New York City police-lab technicians were
saying that they got usable fingerprints in only 10% of cases.

The X-ray system has helped overcome these difficulties. It was
originally developed in a scientific laboratory in Glasgow, Scot., using
full-size X-ray equipment, but recent modifications have brought it into
play literally at the scene of the crime. It represents an enormous ad-
vance over the older systems. It can be used to pick up latent prints
that are many months old. It can develop them from clothing, money,
paper documents, "soft” curved surfaces, even the skin of dead bodies.
(It was, in fact, used in this way by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
to help solve a quintuple murder in 1969.) And it can produce a usable
image of a print within a minute or two of discovery.

The X-ray system involves a "dusting" technique, as in the older
system, but the "dust” is made.from a dense metal that shows up clearly
on X-ray film. The metal is ground down to an extremely fine powder
that tends to arrange itself in the pattern of the print. A quick-develop-
ing film, similar to that used in home Polaroid cameras, is placed be-
hind the surface that contains the print. The X-ray machine is brought
up to the dusted print, the tube is focused on it, the machine is switched
on briefly, and an image of the fingerprint is imprinted through the
texture onto the Polaroid film mounted behind it. The film is then
developed on the spot; in a minute or two the investigators have in
their possession a clear image of a fingerprint and can start checking
out the identity of the victim or potential suspect.

378

Low-voltage equipment is used in this operation because high-
voltage-and more powerful-X-ray units cannot be used casually in
areas of high-density human traffic. Thus, magnetometers rather than
X rays are used in screening baggage and passengers at airline ter-
minals; otherwise, persons who took a plane more than once or twice
a year might receive an overdose of radiation. Nevertheless, portable
high-voltage systems are useful in some situations. They make it pos
sible to examine, in isolated areas, those items that cannot possibly

be brought to an X-ray laboratory.

For example, in the solitude of the night, U.S. customs agents
brought a portable high-voltage X-ray tube to a deserted dockside
building in New York City to examine a shipment of canned fish frorn
Spain. Customs had been alerted that a company not normally engaged
in canning or fishing was suddenly buying fish cans and-curiously-

379

The microscope is a versatile
instrument in the hands of the police
lab technician. Through comparison
of toolmarks, he can identify
the tools used in the commission
of such crimes as breaking
and entering. Another use
is in the detection of obliterated
gun numbers through microscopic
examination of the chemically
treated surface.

Fingerprints obtained in the course
of an investigation can
be transmitted over telephone lines
from a precinct station
to the photofacsimile recorder
(above) at Chicago police
headquarters. The recorder produces
a photographic copy that is then
used to search the records.
The computer (opposite page)
in the police department's Data
Systems Division can provide, almost
Instantaneously, information
ranging from the license numbers
of stolen cars to the arrest record
of a suspect to overall crime
statistics.

lead fishing sinkers. Quick diversification is not a characteristic of most
European corporations, so when a shipment from this company ar-
rived in New York, customs officers entered the dockside warehouse
where it v/as stored and began to examine it.

First they weighed sample cans: the weight was exactly as indicated
on the label. Then they brought in the X-ray unit and X-rayed a number
of cans. Many of the cans did contain fish, but the X rays also showed
that some of them contained lead sinkers. When those cans were
opened, the customs officers found that they contained— in addition
to the lead sinkers — a great deal of heroin. Heroin is lighter than fish,
but the combination of heroin and lead sinkers gave the cans a total
weight exactly equal to the listed weight of the fish. The discovery led
to the seizure of a multimillion dollar cache of heroin and provided an
insight into the methods of drug traffickers.

Still photography and videotapes

That photography is now being used effectively in solving bank rob-
beries— and preventing them, by threatening certain identification— is
due directly to advances in film technology. Until fairly recently, this
use of photography was impractical because of the low light level in
most banks. However, improvements in film speed and wide-aperture
lens settings now permit clear photographs to be taken indoors. In-
deed, the sharp increase in arrest and conviction rates of bank robbers
identified through such photographs may have brought about a change
in the robbers' methods of operation. The older bank robbers— who
would go to prison for life if they were caught— do not appear on the
film. Some law-enforcement officers believe they now act as teachers
of apprentice thieves who take the risk and split the loot with the older
men, especially since young criminals are turning up with exactly the
same techniques long used by the older criminals.

Videotaping has also changed certain criminal methods of operation,
particularly when it is combined with other advanced technologies,
such as helicopters. For decades, thieves being hemmed in by police
approaching at ground level would flee to safety over the roof tops.
Now they can be spotted from helicopters and followed across the
roofs. They can also be photographed, sometimes from great distances,
and this videotaped record constitutes irrefutable proof that the
accused man was at the scene of the crime.

One night a year or so ago, a thief who invaded a medical center in
Kansas City, Kan., was the target of such technology. The report of a
potential threat was radioed both to a patrol car and to a helicopter.
The helicopter got there first, with a videotape system geared for night
photography ready and running. The camera was on when the suspect
appeared on the roof, fled across it, and descended to the ground via a
fire escape on a nearby building. The helicopter follov/ed the suspect,
nov/ in his car, while radioing reports of his position to the ground
patrol. Meanv/hile, the cameras recorded his every move, right up to
the time of his interception and arrest. There was no alibi he could

380

offer that could contest the vide; --,? o h.s fhoht from the

scene of the crime.

It Is this element of proof that giv^^s jH'ficance to video-
taping, even in the most unglamorojb * 'd.v enforcement. Thus

the sheriff's police of Bernalillo County, ftew where Albuquer-

que is located — mounted videotaoe cameras a^d recording units in
two squad cars used principally in patrolling court/ roads and in the
arrest of drunk drivers. When police ofhcers see a car weaving dov;n
the road, they start to take a videotape recoramg of the car and its
movements. When the car is curbed by the ooi'ce and the driver steps
out, his every move is also recorded. If he is falling-down drunk, if he
is staggering, if he comes out swinging, the camera has it all on tape.
It also has the driver's performance in the usual roadside tests for
drunkenness — v/alking a straight line, picking up coins off the road,
touching a finger to the nose.

The camera provides an authentic, irrefutable record of how the
driver was behaving and performing at the tirr.s he was driving the car,
not how he performed 20 or 40 or 60 minutes .ater v/hen he was booked
in the police station. Under the old system, .-.'hich rehed on a blood-
alcohol test performed after the suspect was Drought in for arrest and
booking, the local prosecutor v/as getting conwctions m 66% of drunk-
driving cases. After the videotape system was .mroduced in July 1970,
he got 100% convictions in the first 130 cases brought to coud

Enter the computer

The principal use of computers in lav/ enforcement tocay is for infor-
mation retrieval. More sophisticated uses of the computer have been
slow in coming, but the speed and thoroughness of the information-
retrieval program have been immensely gratifying. In fingerprint
identification, for example, one reel of magnetic computer tape can
hold 5,000,000 frames of fingerprints and a computer can scan those
images at the rate of 2,000 a second. Thus, it is possible to make a
fingerprint search of dimensions that would have been all but un-
thinkable before computers came into use.

When a townhouse on West 11th Street in Manhattan blev/ up in
March 1970, for example, the numerical possibilities in fingerprint
identification were astronomical. The investigators did not knov/ how
many people had been in the house at the time of the explosion. They
did not knov/ how many bodies there were: indeed, the blast had been
so violent that they could not find enough remains from any one per-
son to make an identification, much less a "body. They did find a
number of finger fragments, but putting them together in the proper
combination needed for identification, using pre-computer methods,
might have been a job covering several lifetimes. High-speed com
puters were able to sift through all the possible combinations and
produce three positive identifications in a matter of a day or so. At the
same time, using an older technology — X-ray diffraction— police v/ere
2ble to analyze traces of dynamite found in the wreckage and compare

381

The gas chromatograph (right)
is based on the principle that
different complex molecules move
at different speeds- Among its uses
in police work are the analysis
of trace amounts of materials
that may constitute evidence,
the separation and purification
of such substances as narcotic
mixtures and volatile solvents
suspected of use in arson cases,
and the exact determination
of the amount of alcohol in the blood
of an arrested person.

The ultraviolet spectrophotometer
(opposite page) has been used
to identify certain types of drugs
and to identify substances
of suspicious origin in assault
and homicide cases.

drivers, but the driver must have a radio, must have it on, and must be
within range of the station for this service to be effective. Joscelyn
suggests that it would be simple to relay information from the com-
puter to every driver on the road simply by mounting electric signs
along the highway. Because of its speed, the computer could flash a
trouble signal immediately, while there was still time for the driver to
take effective action. Furthermore, this would allow the police to use
their energies in the most efficient way: in clearing up the accident,
helping its victims, and guiding traffic back onto the main road beyond
the accident site. Joscelyn estimates that such a system would cost
S3, 000 per mile of interstate highway — a negligible sum when com-
pared with the million-dollar-per-mile cost of the superhighways
themselves.

Science wins its badge

The significance of the Indiana experiment lies not merely in the poten-
tial of computer-surveyed traffic but in the willingness of a relatively
small sheriff's police department to recognize that potential. This
represents a notable change in attitude, for the acceptance of science
and technology even by big-city police forces in America was slow in
coming. At the time of the St. Valentine's Day massacre in 1929, the
Chicago Police Department did not even attempt to identify the slugs
found in the seven victims. But once the notion caught hold, the most
exotic of scientific techniques became routine: the analytical gas
chromatograph is used in many police departments for determining
the amount of alcohol in the blood of a person accused of drunk
driving; infrared and ultraviolet spectrophotometers are used to deter-
mine the presence of some narcotics.

More important, in cases that are not routine, the scientific approach
can be conclusive. In New York City several years ago, for example, an
384

elderly woman was robbed and raped in her home. Her assailant had
invaded the home while she was polishing silver, and in the struggle a
smudge of the polish came off on his clothing. The police laboratory
used X-ray diffraction to determine the crystalline structure of the
polish the woman had been using. When a suspect was brought in, his
clothing was analyzed by, among other things. X-ray diffraction, and
a smudge on it turned out to have exactiy the same crystalline structure
as the silver polish. Confronted with this evidence, he confessed.

In another case, in a small mountain town in West Virginia in the
mid-1960s, a woman we will call Vera Monahan was gradually poison-
ing her husband with arsenic. Arsenic poisoning is a slow process,
however, and one day shortly before Christmas she lost patience and
strangled him. Then she burned his remains for several days in a
kerosene-fed coal-and-wood fire not far from their home. Eventually
the man was missed, his disappearance was investigated, and Mrs.
Monahan was arrested on suspicion, but the police lacked two things,
a body, and proof that the murder was premeditated. They did suspect
where the body had been burned, so they collected several hundred
pounds of dirt and ashes from the site and shipped them to the FBI
laboratories in Washington, D.C. There, scientists sifted through the
debris and collected enough bone and tissue fragments almost in
visible to the naked eye-to fill a quart jar. With the aid of an anthro-
pologist from the Smithsonian Institution, they were able to identify
these remains as coming from a human male of the age and build of

Monahan. That provided evidence of a body.

Next came the matter of premeditation. To prove this, the laboratory
scientists subjected the remains to neutron activation, making the bone
and tissue fragments radioactive so that they gave off gamma rays. The
various elements present in any radioactive material can be identified
precisely by measuring the gamma rays it emits. In this case, the mea-

385

Specimens too minute to be identified
with the naked eye may provide
important clues to the solution
of a crime. Shown as they appear
under the microscope are (top
to bottom) asbestos, mink, and wool
and (opposite page, top to bottom)
hemp, kapok, and dog hair.

surement showed an excessive amount of arsenic. The poiice were
abie to trace arsenic purchases in the region of the tiny town to Mrs.
Monahan, and she was subsequently convicted of first-degree murder.

Angora fiber and blood alcohol

In a lonely spot in San Francisco one night in the 1960s, a man rose
suddenly from the back seat of a parked car occupied by a young
couple. He bound, gagged, and blindfolded the young man— a physi-
cal education instructor in a local high school— ordered the young
woman into the back seat, and then proceeded to abuse her sexually
for several hours. Later, neither the young man nor the victim could
offer any description of the assailant, but certain aspects of the crime
suggested that it had been carefully planned. The assailant carried
with him a kit of ropes, chains, and sadistic devices that he was careful
to clean up and carry away as he left. The character of the crime and
the particular abuse he had heaped on the young woman suggested
the working out of a profoundly macabre sadomasochistic drive. Lack-
ing a distinctive description, the police searched through their files
of sexual deviates for a man with this particular type of mentality. As it
happened, they came up with the wrong man, but justice— and science
—was working for him. Using an infrared spectrophotometer, experts
in the police lab had found almost microscopic evidence of angora
fiber on the victim’s bra. At first the investigators hoped the angora
had come from the clothing of the assailant, providing irrefutable proof
of his presence at the scene of the crime and perhaps a clue to his
character as well. Somewhat to their chagrin, it was found that the
young woman had been wearing an angora sweater.

Nevertheless, the discovery was to prove critical. Angora sheds
easily, and during the assault it could easily have shed all over the
assailant’s clothing. But even before investigators could find and test
the clothing of the suspect, the laboratory men made an astonishing
discovery; under routine infrared spectroscopy, the clothing of another
man, arrested for a nonviolent crime, proved to have traces of the same
angora fiber as that on the victim’s bra.

At first, the police could hardly believe the evidence, for the new
suspect— who by some ironic coincidence had been lodged in the cell
next to the original suspect— was not quite five feet tall. This fact alone
would establish a powerful defense for him. On the face of if, if seemed
unlikely that such a tiny man could subdue a healthy, muscular physi-
cal education instructor almost a foot taller than he, or that a woman
could spend so much time in intimate contact with him without noticing
his size. Yet the evidence provided by the laboratory, combined with
the further evidence found in his home— including chains used in the
assault — proved conclusive. The old suspect was released, and the
new one was charged and ultimately convicted of the crime.

This was not the first case in which scientific evidence has been used
to free the innocent as well as to convict the guilty. Take the case of a
driver in New York City who was taken info custody after his car, weav-

386

ing back and forth on a crowded city street, sideswiped three cars and
finally crashed into a stop sign. Two persons were known to have been
in the car, but the passenger escaped before the police arrived. The
driver was found slumped in the wreckage. The car reeked of alcohol,
and an open bottle of liquor was dribbling the last of its contents into
the smashed front seat. The driver v/as rushed to a hospital and, as a
matter of routine, his blood was tested via the analytical gas chroma-
tograph. It showed absolutely no alcohol in his bloodstream. The police
wanted another test, but the hospital personnel intervened: their pa-
tient had suffered a stroke, which, of course, accounted for his erratic
driving. Later, the police discovered that it was the passenger who had
been drinking and who had left the open liquor bottle in the wreckage.

A somewhat similar case occurred in Baltimore, Md., where a man
was arrested for drunk driving early one morning as he headed toward
the Sparrows Point steel mills. When he was stopped by the police, he
showed all the signs of drunkenness: slurred speech, very poor co-
ordination, even a strange smell on his breath. But when he was taken
to headquarters and given — with his permission — a test for blood-
alcohol content, it proved to be negative. Unconvinced, the police
made another test, but when it also turned out to be negative they
began to investigate further and thos averted a possible tragedy.

The suspect was a diabetic who had been afraid to reveal his illness
for fear he would lose his job in the steel mills. That morning he had
taken his prescribed dose of insulin but — finding that he was late— he
did not eat as he was supposed to do. While he was driving to work, an
insulin reaction set in. The symptoms of approaching insulin shock
— loss of motor control, nervousness, fear, a flushed face, sweating,
and the vague smell of acetone on the breath — are similar to the signs
of drunkenness. If the test for blood-alcohol content had not been
easily available, he might have been thrown into a cell to sleep it off,
sunk deeply into insulin shock, and died.

Overcoming time and space

Some persons— bemused, perhaps, by fictional tales of scientific
detection— believe that science and technology have made shoe-
leather detective work dispensable. This is not the case: the hard,
grinding work of gathering facts and details is more vital than ever.
But science and technology have expanded the horizons of detection
—and of justice— to an extent that even Sherlock Holmes could never
have imagined. Consider what they have made possible.

. Overcoming remote evidence: In 1 960, the automobile of a suspect
in the kidnap-murder of a wealthy brewer, Adolph Coors III. was found
rusting in a gutter near Atlantic City, N.J.. some 1.800 miles from the
scene of the crime in Colorado. Hardened mud scraped from beneath
the fenders of the car was subjected to emission spectrography, in
which a substance is vaporized and the light-spectrum of the gas it
emits is analyzed. After comparison with 421 other soil samples, the
mud from the car was found to match the soil from the area in which

387

Removed from the front lines
of the confrontation with crime
the headlines that accompany
violence, the crime laboratory
is an increasingly vital part
any big-city police department.

Coors had been kidnapped and killed. This finding was instrumental
in obtaining a conviction of the suspect.

• Overcoming time problems: In December 1967 the body of a
rooming-house caretaker was found in Manchester, N.H. Bloody heel-
prints on the tile floor around the body were readily identified as those
of a man we will call Tom Mahoney, but Mahoney claimed that the
heelprints had been made after the murder. The police gathered up
the tiles and shipped them to the FBI laboratory in Washington. There
painstaking scientific analysis proved that one heelprint, partially
obliterated by the victim's blood, had been placed on the tile before
the blood fell on the floor. The testimony of the FBI experts on this
matter led to conviction of the accused man and a sentence of life
imprisonment.

• Overcoming the possibility of cover-ups: In what might be called
the Case of the Decapitated Driver, New York City police found a con-
vertible jammed against the left-hand curb of the Long Island Express-
way in Queens. The driver was seated at the wheel, but his head was
on the floor of the back seat. There were no signs of a struggle. How-
ever, the windshield and front frame of the convertible were broken
and there were scrapes on it suggesting that it had been driven at high
speed under something very low. There were no nearby structures that
seemed to qualify, and it seemed unlikely that the car could have
passed completely under a truck without the truck driver noticing.
The only alternative left was that something had passed over the
convertible, moving at high speed and in the opposite direction.

So, improbable as it seemed, the police began searching for an air-
borne car that had been going the opposite way. After canvassing
dozens of auto-repair shops, they found a car that had been brought in
for body work on the underside, and chips of paint from this car were
sent to the police lab for comparison v/ith microscopic chips of paint
that had been found on the top of the convertible. To make the com-
parison, the experts in the police lab used spectroscopy. In such an
388

analysis, a technician burns a fragment of paint in an instrument that
records the varying wavelengths given off by each element of the paint.
By comparing one wavelength pattern with another, he can determine
whether or not they are identical. If they are, the paint source is identi-
cal. Even repainting will not change the evidence: the FBI once traced
a Cadillac that had been repainted seven times. In this case, the two
sets of paint scrapings matched.

The owner of the second car had an astounding— but plausible-
story. He was driving with a companion along the nearly empty express-
way when he lost control of his car. It hit the narrow curb that served
as a median strip, was catapulted into the air by the impact, "flew”
through the air for several feet, and landed on its wheels in the opposite
lane. With traffic coming at him head-on, the driver wasted no time in
making for the nearest exit ramp. When he realized that his car had
been damaged on the underside, he thought it had been caused by the
landing and took the car to the repair shop without a second thought.
His companion supported his story. He did not know he had hit another
car and, indeed, most people would be so startled at finding their car
suddenly airborne and so involved in trying to get back to earth safely
that a "collision" below them could well go unnoticed.

The research goes on

More research in this and other matters now is under way. At John Jay
College of Criminal Justice in New York City and at Scotland Yard,
studies are going on that may lead to automated processes of drug
identification— which represents a large proportion of the case load in
certain big-city police laboratories. Research into fingerprint identifi-
cation involves everything from laser technology to use of an electronic
scanning system, akin to a cosmic ray scanner, in an effort to find ways
of establishing identification by using only a portion of the information
available in a fingerprint. One highly publicized area of research con-
cerns the development of nonlethal weapons for quelling riots.

In law enforcement, as in other research activities, the solution to one
problem opens fascinating new ways to attack other problems. Today
there are more than 140 criminalistic laboratories in the United States
-run by state and city police, the FBI, the U.S. Treasury, the Bureau of
Customs, even the Food and Drug Administration. In those laboratories,
as in private research facilities, research into everything from cathode-
ray tubes to computers is expanding rapidly. It is as if the whole law-
enforcement establishment had decided to respond to the ultimate
imperative of Sherlock Holmes. "You know my methods." he said in
The Sign of Four. "Apply them!”

389

Th© World’s Largest
llyciear Prober

bf Howard Jc Lewis

Finding the tiniest particle, the most fundamental
constituent of all matter, is the goal of the scientists at the
U.S. National Accelerator Laboratory, the world’s most
powerful particle accelerator.

Photos, courtesy, Notlonol Acceferofor Loborofory

Pre-accelerator generates the protons later used in the other accelerators by stripping electrons from hydrogen
atoms. Here the protons get their first energy boost, to 750.000 electron volts.

A billion electron volts is not a great deal of energy.
Not when you consider that the equivalent of one
billion billion billion electron volts is required to
keep a 20-watt light bulb burning for an hour. On
the other hand, if you can apply that much energy
to particles of matter so small that ten thousand
billion of them could crowd into a linear inch, you
can give them quite a wallop. There's a problem in
doing it, but it's a problem well worth solving if you
wish to discover the most fundamental secret of
nature— how matter is arranged and held together
by a variety of powerful forces we are only dimly
beginning to understand.

This problem — of imparting enough energy to
atomic particles to break them apart — has occupied
scientists since the early years of this century. And
since the middle 1 940s, when an explosion over the
New Mexican desert demonstrated that man could
extract the enormous energy locked in the nucleus
of the atom, it has also interested governments.

Pioneering work

-et us start at the beginning. From the work
several French physicists, Flenri Becquerel an
^ierre and Marie Curie, it was discovered t a
•adium, one of the heavier elements, emitted three
different forms of radiation. Two of them could e
deflected by magnetic fields, and from this
determined that one of those two consists o
particles with a positive charge, the other nega ive.
In 1909 a British physicist, Ernest Rutherford, and
several colleagues discovered that if a stream o
the positively charged particles was ®

against an extremely thin sheet of gold foi , a
all of them went through the sheet, a num
these particles, however, were scattered
sheet at sharp angles. Since it was wel
positively charged particles repel eac o ,
clear from the undeflected passage of most of the

particles that the atoms in the apparently solid
sheet of gold metal were actually far from solid.
It also was evident that the sharp deflection of
some indicated that almost all the mass of the gold
atom was concentrated in a tiny positively charged
region, which was called the nucleus.

Later discoveries by others revealed that the
basic structure of the atom consisted of a dense
nucleus containing one or more positively charged
particles called protons, around which orbited, at
relatively enormous distances, negatively charged
particles called electrons. The key to unlocking the
secrets of atomic structure is the proton— specifi-
cally the proton of the hydrogen atom, which con-
tains a single electron orbiting around a single
proton. Stripped of its satellite, the hydrogen
proton becomes an ideal missile with which to
bombard the nuclei of more complex atoms. Its
relatively large mass, at high speeds, provides for
a great deal of energy: its electrical charge makes
possible (1) its acceleration, by manipulating the
potential of electrical fields through which it passes
and (2) its direction, through the use of powerful
magnets surrounding its path of flight.

First accelerators

The fascination that atomic structure holds for
scientists can be measured— in part, at least— by
the number of Nobel Prizes that have been award-
ed to scientists working in this field. Besides Bec-
querel, the Curies, and Lord Rutherford, John D.
Cockcroft and Ernest T. S. Walton received one for
the design of the first machine that was made
specifically to increase the kinetic energy of pro-
tons by accelerating their velocity. Although the
energy imparted by the Cockcroft-Walton accelera-
tor was measured in the thousands rather than the
billions of electron volts, it was adequate to perform
an experiment that had been a long-standing

391

The world’s largest nuclear prober

dream, the transformation of one element into an-
other. Not lead into gold, as the ancient alchemists
had sought, but lithium into helium. More im-
portantly, Cockcroft and Walton demonstrated
beyond any question that the accelerator was an
instrument whose potential exceeded man's
ability even to dream.

The Cockcroft-Walton accelerator was able to
impart only one quick boost to the flight of protons.
Another Nobel Prize awaited the man who first
realized the possibility of bending the flight path
of atomic particles into a complete circle, thus
providing the opportunity to give an almost limit-
less series of kicks to speeding particles as they
raced around the course. He was Ernest O. Lawr-
ence, of the University of California, the first Ameri-
can to occupy a central role in the development of
the accelerator. His machine was called the cy-
clotron. Its energy was measured in the millions of
volts and one of the things that it did was to create
a new element, called plutonium.

With such potentialities unfolding, the search
began for ways to increase the energy of the ac-
celerator. With the proton synchroton, the Brook-
haven National Laboratory, Upton, N.Y., reached
2.3 billion electron volts (GeV) in 1952. Still later
developments made it possible for Brookhaven to
reach an energy level of 33 GeV. Several European
countries combined to build a 28-GeV machine in
Switzerland, and early in 1968 the Soviet Union
placed in operation a machine operating at a peak
level of 76 GeV.

If one thinks of an accelerator as a telescope In
reverse, whose energy levels permit it to peer
deeper and deeper into innerspace, then the ques-
tion arises: what energies are attainable? By the
time the Soviet machine was built at Serpukhov, it
was apparent that advances in accelerator theory
and technology had reached a stage when man’s
ignorance was no longer the limiting factor. It was
money. When U.S. scientists were asked by their
government what kind of a machine should next

omSp I' ® realization

® funding said 200-300. Two other
conservative de-

cis on. Although it was true that available tech-

SnzId'tS scientil; So

wolTri mlv advances in technology

such a mfh- 2bout 1980 to build

such a machine at far less cost than was the case

HOWARD J. LEWIS, director ol the Office of
Morm^tior, at the U.S. National Academy

Britann- editorial consultant for the

Bntann.ca Yearbooi. of Science and the Future.

in 1972. Second, since it was apparent that even
the largest nations could build only one such ac-
celerator, there was much sentiment for the idea
of looking to the day when all the major powers
would agree to collaborate in the construction and
operation of a single machine at that energy level
or better.

Building the national accelerator

For the builders of the U.S. National Accelerator
Laboratory at Batavia, III., Feb. 29, 1972, was a day
of great importance. On that date they wanted to
bring their massive new machine to its design level
of 200 GeV — before the Joint Committee on Atomic
Energy of the U.S. Congress concluded its annual
hearings on March 1. It was the powerful Joint
Committee that authorized the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission to spend S250 million on this ma-
chine.

That the accelerator was so near completion by
February 29 was in great part due to its director,
Robert R. Wilson. When he was persuaded by the
consortium of universities that had contracted to
construct and operate the accelerator to leave
Cornell University in early 1967 and direct the
project, he was given a preliminary design study
prepared by the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at
Berkeley, Calif., that called for a seven-year con-
struction program.

Wilson promptly notified all concerned that he
would not spend seven years building an accelera-
tor. He announced that his target date was June
30, 1972. Later, he confided to his close associates
that his real target date was June 30, 1971 — an
unheard-of four-year span between the reworking
of the original plan and the beginning of operation
at 200 GeV.

Wilson and his doughty crew almost made it,
mainly by taking a series of audacious shortcuts
that brought cries of "Irresponsible!" from some of
the most respected accelerator physicists in the
country. One shortcut involved the 240 quadrupole
magnets that focus the proton beam. Because each
must be located relative to its neighbors within an
accuracy of 0.0005 inch {1/10th the width of a hu-
man hair), the original Berkeley design called for
pilings to be sunk down to bedrock. Wilson, how-
ever, ordered borings to be taken around the four-
mile circle the main accelerator ring was to occupy
and decided that the glacial till, lying approximate-
ly 20 feet below the surface, had been sufficiently
compressed during the ice age to bear up under its
new and less demanding load. Nevertheless, after
the 36,000 cubic yards of concrete that make up the
tunnel for the main ring had been laid down, v/ith
its 2,750 tons of reinforcing steel, the ground under

The world's largest nuclear prober

Aerial view of the National Accelerator Laboratory shows the main

the smaller booster ring in the right foreground. After being boosted to 8 GeV m the small rmg. proton
beams are fed into the main ring, where they are raised to an energy eve o

the tunnel began to settle at what experts termed a
"violent” rate of one-tenth of an inch a month.
Again there were bitter outcries that the largest
accelerator in the world was too precious an in-
strument for such shortcuts. By November 1971,
however, the settling had smoothed down to a
uniform three-hundredths of an inch per month
and by mid-1972 posed no problem for the op-
eration of the accelerator.

One other shortcut, however, did hurt. It denied
Wilson his dream of a 1971 completion date and
worked a considerable hardship on those experi-
mental scientists who had taken academic leave
and rushed to bring their instrumentational ap-
paratus to completion by the earlier date. Because
the operation of a proton beam inevitably induces
radioactivity within the ring enclosure, safety
precautions dictate that the ring be buried under
15 feet of earth. When the last concrete section of
the Batavia ring was lowered into place, it was
midwinter on the Illinois prairie and the 15 feet o
dirt that was piled back onto the precast concrete
semicylinders was at freezing temperature. The
massive concrete envelope remained abnorma y

cold throughout the spring and when the humid
air of midsummer entered the tunnel, conden-
sation swiftly generated a London fog within. Thus
it was that when the eager director ordered the
first tests to determine whether his personal 1971
date was to be reached, his magnets blew. They
had been tested for every environmental factor
save one. They had not been tested under water.
In order to save time and money, the epoxy resins
used to insulate the magnets had been applied
at normal atmospheric pressure. Hairline cracks
had developed, undetectable by the tests used
but sufficiently large to permit permeation by the
vapor-laden atmosphere in the ring tunnel. Before
energy approached design level, the entire op-
eration had to be shut down to prevent catastro-
phic damage to the equipment. The staff tried
everything, including setting up giant fans to flood
the tunnel with superheated air. But eventually,
some 350 of the total 1,014 focussing and bending
magnets had to be withdrawn from the enclosure
and undergo reimpregnation with epoxy in spe-
cially built vacuum chambers.

Thus it was that through a succession of daring

393

! ne wcrid’s largest nuclear prober

the Congressional committee concluded its hear-
ings that day.

The magnet problems had apparently been cured
during the early hours of the morning. While Y.'il-
son was exhorting the staff. Francis 7. Cole was
directing actmties in the main control room, com-
municating (X)nstant!y vhth James Griffin some six
blocks away. Griffin had the task of turninc on the
radioirec^uenc^j' stations that prowce the incre-
mental boosts in velocity' to the particles as ther
race around the four-mile circle.

The Village Crier of the National Accelerator
Laboratory' tells the rest of the stor\':

At 1 1 :0D (J/arch t) a steecy, stable Dsarri vras
By 11:33 beam had passed IransiSon energy (17.^ Ge'.T
According to Ed Gray, synchrctrcn pbyslcrsl cn dL'ty at
the mam control console, from then cn tbings just or!
better and belter. A sfigbl jolt to the sistem — a "cuad
bump’— ca\3 the beam "further intenshy’ At 12:33 P.V.
the beam reached 157 GeY for the first time. J/cre a"d
mere pecple clustered around the screen in the Cenbe!
Room lobby, v.atching the narrcri'.' band that hp'dls Che
beam as it crept slm’riy to the right to match the'triancular
ps=k representing 20D billion electron volts cf energ)’.
By 1d33 the screen v.-as completely hidden by a crewd cf
forty or more people. The ding-dirjg-ding c: a bell signal-
led the coming cf the 203 GeV pulse in the bi-model ramp.

At the H. F. (radiofrecuenoy) building. Jim Griffin re-
calls, all controls Viere in ideal positicnE. but the noise
cf the gathering crowd in the Control Room drci'med cut
the Vi-aming bell cn the inter-com; his adjustments had
to be cautious. Star3 Tar’iaer. working with Griffin, walc-hed
the screen. A* 1:03, Tawzer noted. 'That one went at! the
vray out,’ but they wailed for the next pulse to be sure.

In the Cont'c! Room cn the next pulse, semeorje in
the hushed crmvd said, 'There it is!’ and a rousing cheer
filled the room, at 1rt33 P.U.

Interior cf the linear accelerator tonne! shons sei-eral
of the nine tanks in v.-hich protons, after being reoervei
from the pre-eccelerator, are boosted to an en^rc)' t=w
of 203 h'eV. ~~ ~ '

^onvard leaps and an occasional misstep. V.^Is
iOund himself at the end of February' 1972 hurryi

eckfrom thefirstofhvoday^of hearingsinWas
ingLon to reach his ne^v self-imposed goal of c
^n energy while the hearings were still in sessic
' already surpassed all pre\io

"*00 GeV more than h
February 11. When Vrilson ;
ho'y^' evening of February J

" ‘^ 2 . while the thousands of cot

?r25tour '^=Snel rin

a fJi c,-« '^^^ssary'. Vrilson calK

Ho*nirt«K* next morning, J/arch

exVrKS«d'lri-°d^'^ the previous day ar

'V *he attainment of 200 G»

He urged the staff to try to reach the coal be^o'

Rnancial problems

VThat did Vrilson build and what did he bars to
work with? Rrst he had more than a cuarter-
esntury of experience working vrith protons anc
accelerators. Ke had the institutional support of
the Universities Research Association, the cortsor-
tium of 52 universities in the United Stal^ and
Canada that held the AEC contract to build and
operate the accelerator. He had the preliminary'
design of the Lsvrrence Radiation Laboratory,
made by' those who we.-e then generally regarded
as the preeminent people in the field. He hed a
small team of particle physicists and engineers
to adapt the Berkeley design and then b’jild the
accelerator and experimental buildings. And he
had. as a gift fro.rni the state cf lili.nois. 6.S93 acres
of prairie about 30 miles from Chicaao. contaming
several farm buildings and — more i.mportantfy.
as it turned out— about 103 small homes, all iden-
tical. in the unincorporated village of 'iVeston.

Yi'hat Wilson did not have was rrorrey. Allhcugh
the U-S. scientific community has come to depend

The world’s largest nuclear prober

heavily on the federal government for the funding
of research, the money is not always easy to ob-
tain. First the budget bureau of the administration
in power decides how much the individual execu-
tive agencies may ask of Congress for the conduct
of their business. Then, normally, one committee
in each branch of Congress decides which of the
major tasks the agency wants to perform should
in fact be authorized. Still other committees decide
how much money, if any, should be appropriated
to actually carry out the work in any given fiscal
year.

Such an arrangement creates an odd variety of
problems for the director of a federally funded
facility that takes time to build. And it sets a high
premium on improvisation. In the case of the Na-
tional Accelerator Laboratory, for instance, the
Bureau of the Budget allocated $50 million for the
accelerator, with the promise of additional alloca-
tions for experimental equipment. The payroll
began in the spring of 1967 and ground was broken
in December 1968; final authorization of the full
$250 million did not occur until July 11, 1969. The
unpredictability of the financing created some of
the more unusual physical characteristics of the
installation. For example, Wilson had asked for
funds to build a 17-story central laboratory build-
ing, into which he would move most of the facility's
activities from expensive rented facilities in a
nearby town. But when the money was not forth-
coming and there was almost literally no place to
move his now large operation, Wilson delivered a
bold stroke indeed. He brought in house-moving
equipment and literally picked up scores of the
nov/ vacant houses of Weston village and re-
arranged them to suit the needs of the laboratory.
Many of these houses were left as they were, pro-
viding individual domiciles for such small-scale
operations as public information: but for the cen-
tral directorate itself 17 of the houses were pushed
together and joined as a single structure. When
funds did become available to begin the high-rise
building, its first floor was already being used as
a cafeteria and for office space before the concrete
had even been poured for the fourth floor.

The accelerator In 1972

But no matter how chancy the venture looked from
time to time as authorizations or appropriations
were withheld, the construction of the accelerator
moved along briskly from one improvisation o
next. By 1972, there were four major sections corn-
pleted that were used to accelerate °

the next higher level of speed. A relatively small
pre-accelerator, much like the one
vented by Cockcroft and Walton, generated pro-

In the bubble chamber area of the neutrino laboratory,
the silver buiiding at the lower left contains the
15 -foot chamber, and the red building at the right
houses the 30 -inch device.

tons by stripping electrons from hydrogen atoms
and then gave them their first kick of 750,000 elec-
tron volts. The protons were then fed into a 500-
foot-long linear accelerator in which nine similar
banks of high-frequency voltage apparatus propel
the protons to 200 MeV. From there they enter a
miniature version of the accelerator itself, a rapid-
cycling synchroton approximately 500 feet in diam-
eter. In this instrument, which works on the same
principle as the machines at Brookhaven and
Serpukhov, the protons are accelerated around
their prescribed circle at close to the speed of
light, receiving 750,000-electron-volt boosts with
each circling. Upon reaching energies of 8 GeV,
the speeding pulses of protons are fed info the
main ring. Less than a second is required for this
operation.

At this point the full energy of the installation

395

The world’s largest nuclear prober

Geodesic dome atop a building
in the bubble chamber area of the
neutrino laboratory consists of
reinforced polyester fiberglass
panels containing discarded
beverage cans.

is brought to bear on the whirling proton pulses.
Contained in a 2 inch x 5 inch vacuum chamber
fashioned into a ring four miles in circumference,
the protons make 70,000 laps around the course,
picking up 2.8 MeV with each revoiution. The
280,000-mile trip inside the main ring is com-
pleted in 1.6 seconds, within a hair of the speed
of light.

When the proton packages— each containing a
billion or more— have been accelerated to the de-
sired energy level, they are ejected from the main
ring along tangential paths a mile or more long to
the experimental areas. There, a variety of instru-
ments will derive data from the protons them-
selves or from the secondary beams of other par-
ticles created when the protons collide with a
variety of targets.

The first activity in the experimental area was
designed to make use of a 30-inch hydrogen bub-
ble chamber, recently transferred from the Ar-
gonne (III.) National Laboratory. The bubble cham-
ber, which won a Nobel Prize for its inventor,
Donald A. Glaser, is a remarkably simple device.
When a volume of liquid hydrogen in a chamber is
raised to a superheated condition for only a frac-
tion of a second, the content of the chamber is in a
state in which a speeding particle creates a boiling
path during its brief penetration of the medium.

his path of tiny bubbles, visible only for an instant,
IS photographed in the brilliant light of a strobo-
scop'c camera. These photographs, in the hun-
reds of thousands, are then studied and analyzed.
During the summer of 1972, an even larger bub-
a operation, permitting

Joel Tu' A®

speeding into the liquid hydrogen, collisions with

their constituent atoms will splatter them into a va-
riety of particles and sub-particles. Work already
performed on similar instruments elsewhere re-
vealed the presence of 130 different energy parti-
cles within the structure of the atom.

Accelerator experiments

The search for a simplifying theory in particle
physics has preoccupied many physicists since
the great variety of so-called "strange particles"
began to come to light. Again a Nobel Prize for
Physics was awarded for innovative work in this
field, this time to Murray Gell-Mann for his theo-
retical work in postulating a classified structure
for these sub-atomic particles. A central postulate
of this theory is that there are three really elemen-
tary particles, which he named "quarks." By as-
signing certain properties to each of three vari-
eties of quarks, says Gell-Mann, one would be
able to construct the entire array of the 130 known
particles.

The search for quarks will surely benefit from the
extraordinary devices at the National Accelerator
Laboratory. Some of the possibilities were ex-
plained by Father Timothy E. Toohig, a physicist
and a Jesuit priest;

One of the things we shall be able to do with this accel-
erator is generate very-high-energy muons, which have
the special value of being sensitive only to electromag-
netic force rather than the nuclear force itself. With these
muons, we shall be able to probe the electromagnetic
structure of the nucleus and see whether it is a simple
thing with a charge on the outside of it, or whether it is
actually a collection of very small charges, like a pudding
with the charges embedded in it. Then v/e would be able
to study the deeper structure of the nucleus just as Ruth-
erford studied the grosser structure of the atom.

396

The world's largest nuclear prober

Father Toohig Is, however, far more involved
with the central focus of his laboratory, which is
the study of neutrinos. These particles have neg-
ligible mass and no electrical charge. Because they
are so small and are not affected by magnetic
fields, they pass through objects like the earth as
if they were not there. Muons and neutrinos are
created simultaneously by the decay of other prod-
ucts of proton bombardment. To separate the two,
the neutrino laboratory at Batavia uses, among
other more sophisticated devices, 1,000 yards of
earth. Almost all the muons, it is hoped, will be
stopped by the earthworks as they veer off the main
ring; the neutrinos will slip through to the labora-
tory. There they will encounter an ingenious appa-
ratus that consists primarily of a spark chamber
sandwiched by two high-speed scintillators.

The apparatus works as follows; Since neutrinos
carry no charge, they are impossible to detect
directly. But one can, in a bubble chamber or a
spark chamber, detect the products of an impact
between a speeding neutrino and another object,
such as a proton or neutron. Spark chambers
will display the passage of collision products for
a thousandth of a second or longer: the scintil-
lators work in millionths of a second. Therefore,
if the rear scintillator signals the passage of a
charged particle when the front one does not,
logic dictates that the charged particles have
originated in a neutrino collision. And the milli-
second duration of the traced passage in the spark
chamber is long enough for high-speed film to
record the event.

There are three experimental facilities located
about half a mile or more from that point at which
the particles they deal with are flung out of the ac-
celerator ring. In addition to the neutrino labora-
tory, which includes the work with the muons,
there are the meson laboratory and the proton
laboratory. By 1975, it is expected that approxi-
mately 350 researchers from the United States
and abroad will be swarming over these experi-
mental laboratories at any given time. Competi-
tion for the privilege of utilizing the product of
the accelerator for an experiment is as keen as
it was among astronomers when the 200-inch
telescope of Mount Palomar first went Into action.

Who can use the accelerator?

Who will be allowed to use this unique instrument?
Ultimately, that is the decision of director Wilson,
but he does not decide alone. With one exception,
all the experiments that have been accepted by the
laboratory have resulted from proposals submitted
by individuals outside the directorate of the facility.
All are reviewed by a program advisory committee.

chaired in 1972 by Robert G. Sachs, director of the
Enrico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies at the
University of Chicago. Periodically the committee
submits its recommendations to the director on
which proposals might be accepted and suggests
priorities. Once a proposal is accepted, the labora-
tory staff works closely with the experimental
group in arranging scheduling, developing cost
estimates, and reviewing logistical needs.

By the spring of 1972, approximately 170 pro-
posals had been received and about 60 had been
accepted by the laboratory. Although the direc-
torate of the laboratory sought not to impose its
own criteria on the applicants, there is a general
strategy of research that Ned Goldwasser de-
scribed in some detail:

When you enter a new world, as we shall be doing
with this new instrument, you really have two basic
choices. You can continue to do much the same kinds
of experiments you have been doing, simply trying to
attain more precise measurements of known phenomena
in this new region of energy; or you can look upon this
as an opportunity to explore an entirely new world, to
look around to see what is here that wasn't known to exist
in the former domain. On the whole, putting together the
research program we have approved, we have put the
highest priority on the second category. Take the rough
look first. In my view, it would be nonsense and trivial
to continue what we've done before. When the bevatron
was built, it was designed specifically to produce an
anti-proton. What they actually found was the whole new
v/orld of strange particles that no one had any reason
to suspect existed before. Ninety percent of the time of
that instrument has been spent in the study of these new
particles. If anyone had made out a research program be-
fore that accelerator went into operation, he would either
have had to have the courage to cancel what they had
arranged to do too early or to trudge ahead with a very
uninteresting program because of inertia. In actual fact,
they were more flexible in those days and were able to
respond to the new discoveries that were made. Here
we're explicitly making that decision, I hope!

The genius of the men at Batavia has already pro-
duced a 200-GeV accelerator at a lower cost and
in less time than anyone else had thought possible.
But these scientists hold out still greater promises.
With modest additions to present equipment, an
increased power supply, and increased cooling
capacity, they are confident that they can reach
500 GeV, two and a half times the previously rated
capacity.

And, in the manner of scientists, they are looking
still farther ahead— to the day when it will be pos-
sible by the use of jackets of liquid helium to ar-
range an additional ring of superconducting
magnets above the present ring. This addition,
they believe, will raise energy levels available at
Batavia to an incredible one trillion electron volts—
and very probably open up doors to knowledge
that no man can now imagine.

397

To date, every human being that has ever lived has been conceived
in vivo, within a living organism. This seemingly unalterable necessity
may soon be dispensed with. A baby— someday soon— will be con-
ceived in a test tube. It will result from a female egg being fertilized by
a male sperm cell in laboratory glassware— in vitro. The embryo then
will be returned to its mother's womb for the normal nine-month de-
velopment period. It is possible that such an event will happen this
year or the next. Very few births in the history of man will be watched
so closely or will create more controversy, fear, apprehension, and,
perhaps, hope.

The proposal for such an experiment has come from a group of
scientists at the University of Cambridge, in England, led by physiolo-
gist Robert G. Edwards.

If Edwards accomplishes such a feat, it v/ill not be without courage,
for he has been brought to task for even suggesting so daring an ex-
periment. The language of Edwards' critics is harsh. His work has been
described by one outspoken opponent as immoral and a stunt. The
tone of this criticism is extreme for the scientific world, but then the
issues raised by the possible success of such a venture are profound.
The two principal questions raised in the controversy are these:

1. If the technique works (and the protagonists are divided as to
whether it will), does the world really need it? Will the way have been
opened to the production of a dehumanized, test-tube baby society
described by Aldous Huxley in his Brave New World 1

2. Is the guilt and concern felt by many scientists about past dis-
coveries (such as nuclear weapons and the chemical processes re-
sponsible, unwittingly, for much pollution) leading to a rigid new con-
servatism that may stifle freedom of research? Will scientists be saying,
in effect, "It is good to know this and bad to know that ?

It is particularly appropriate that the proposal arose where it did.
Indeed, Cambridge was the site also of the crystallization of the idea
that suggested the mechanism of transmission of genetic information
via the complex deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule. From such
studies emerged the DNA model, deduced by J. D. Watson, Maurice
Wilkins, and F. H. C. Crick (see 1969 Britannica Yearbook of Science
and the Future: THE LANGUAGE OF LIFE, pages 122-139), which
suggested that DNA operates as precisely and predictably as a machine
-and like a machine, it can be adjusted, modified, overhauled. As
DNA is manipulable, so is life.

Tampering with nature

In the two decades since the deduction of the Watson-Crick DNA
model, biologists have begun to tamper with nature in ways that earlier
generations would have left to evolution. By 1971. when Edwards
studies began to become widely known, the life sciences were already
producing startling results.

The genetic code-the arrangement of subunits of DNA and RN
(ribonucleic acid, another important molecule) into informational bits

401

The mature human egg (opposite
page, top) is the largest cell in the
body, typically measuring 0.1 mm in
diameter. Magnified over 50 times, it
appears as a granular mass hiding its
nucleus. The cell is surrounded by the
zona pellucida, a protective material.
The sperm, seen in large numbers
circling an egg (bottom), are among
the smallest cells, averaging 0.06 mm
in length Each has a rounded head
containing tightly massed
chromosomes, a midpiece containing
other cellular bodies, and a long tail
that gives the cell great mobility. The
sperm developed as a result of meiosis,
a unique form of cell division Only
one sperm will penetrate and fertilize
the egg The egg is midway through
meiosis. It has divided once into a
large cell and a very small one (a polar
body), which is later discarded. It will
divide again in the same way alter the
sperm has entered.

WILLIAM K. STUCKEY is a science
writer and former editor of the M.l.T.
Reports on Research.

that call for the chemical construction of cell components— was
broken. A gene— a group of these subunits responsible for a particular
trait of an organism— was created in the laboratory with off-the-shelf
chemicals. It was demonstrated that one type of cell could be con-
verted into another. Laboratory animals were cloned, a procedure that
involves taking one animal and producing other animals that are its
genetic duplicates. Giant atlases were being prepared to map and
identify genes as to their function and their location along the DNA
molecule. Methods were being developed to separate and identify
sperm cells that, upon fertilization of an egg, could produce progeny
of predetermined sex. Fruit flies (long a favorite experimental animal
of geneticists) were altered in their DNA composition, and those
changes were passed along to future generations. And methods for
using harmless viruses to carry alien DNA into cells, incorporating it
into the cell’s DNA and thereby producing a change (a process referred
to as genetic "surgery” or genetic "engineering”) were reported.

Ironically, all these events— including the fundamental Watson-
Crick work on DNA— were the results of a totally free spirit of scientific
inquiry. The guiding maxim behind the work was, in effect: ”lt is better
to know than not to know.” Indeed, that has been an idea underpinning
science since the Renaissance.

It was within this framework of events and ideas that one of the
world's best-known scientists— Watson himself— criticized Edwards’
experiments. At a science symposium in the United States, Watson
urged Edwards to abandon the idea of reimplanting a test-tube embryo
in a uterus because not enough is known to predict whether or not the
resulting infant — if it should survive— would be permanently damaged
by the procedure.

Late in the fall of 1971, Max Perutz commented on Watson’s remarks.
Perutz, a senior chemist at the Medical Research Council, the British
equivalent of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, and a Nobel laure-
ate, joined with Watson in the belief that scientists must be held re-
sponsible for the social ramifications of their otherwise morally neutral
discoveries. Perutz’ remarks concerning Edwards went even further
than those of Watson. Initially, he supported one of Edwards’ stated
aims for conducting the research— to make visible an otherwise hidden
process, to record in fine detail the way a sperm cell penetrates an egg,
the way the egg then begins to divide, and the order in which the cells
of the baby-to-be are then produced. Perutz felt that an attempt to
understand the early development of the human embryo was entirely
justified, both scientifically and ethically, but he continued his remarks
in a different vein: ”His [Edwards’] second aim was to fertilize ova in
the test tube and to re-implant these ova into infertile women. I agree
with Dr. Watson that this is far too great a risk. Even if only a single
abnormal baby is born and has to be kept alive as an invalid for the rest
of its life, Dr. Edwards would have a terrible guilt on his shoulders. The
idea that this might happen on a larger scale — a new thalidomide
catastrophe— is horrifying.”

402

Perutz noted that while he had not read Edwards’ scientific papers,
such as those published in the widely respected British journal Nature,
he had read an article prepared for laymen by Edwards and Ruth E.
Fov/ler and published in the December 1970 Scientific American. And
although he was not familiar v/ith the details of Edwards' experiments,
he felt that there was something dangerous here— even to science it-
self. For if an infant was born that proved to be a freak or monster,
public reaction might saddle all of science with the blame. Such back-
lash v/ould further weaken the already shaky support structure for the
basic sciences in a number of countries, Perutz predicted.

By 1972, in the wake of considerable controversy about him, Ed-
wards v/as remaining silent. Although he had v/ritten and spoken
extensively since 1965 about his plans to bring an implanted human
embryo to term, he was no longer presenting defenses of himself. His
last public statement after the controversy erupted was simply, "The
v/ork will continue."

Significance of the work

Among the defenders of Edwards' work was his administrative superior
at the Physiological Laboratory in Cambridge, Colin Austin. I m en-
tirely in favor of the work," Austin stated. "Much thought has gone into
each step of it. There is much data from similar experiments in animals:
none of it suggests that Edwards is taking any particularly unusual
risk.” And it is a relatively small step from animals to man, he con-
tended. Actually, there are fev/er chances for deformities to occur in
the embryo in its first five or six days after conception roughly the
period in which it will be in vitro— than in later stages of development.
The defects associated with thalidomide, for example, did not develop
until much later in pregnancy.

"The tone of the criticism the Edwards work is drawing is not particu-
larly justified-in fact, I’m incensed by it," Austin continued. "A number
of women who are donating eggs to the experiments, and who may
carry them to full term after the in vitro fertilization, are nurses, doctors,
or the wives of doctors. They are fully informed about the risks, yet are
v/illing to go through with it. As to the morality of the experiments,
they have considerable humanitarian promise. The Edwards technique
not only would permit previously infertile women to have t eir own
children, but also offers the opportunity of separating some types of
deformed embryos from normal ones while they are in vitro.

Who is Edwards? Exactly what is he doing? Robert G. Edwards is an
intense, articulate man in his forties. He is a transatlantic scholar, hav
ing held research positions not only in Great Britain (Cambridge or
the past seven years, and universities in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and
Wales) but also in the U.S. at the California Institute of Technology,
Johns Hopkins University, and the University of North Carolina. He
has received U.S. research funds in the form of grants from the Ford

Foundation. . ^ ■

His interest in reproductive physiology, the early developmental

403

4 cells

The earliest stages of human growth,
diagramed in sequence on these
pages, can be duplicated in the test
tube. A fertilized egg cell, or zygote,
(top) has two polar bodies, showing
meiosis is complete: two pronuclei,
one the egg's and the other a result
ol expansion of the sperm's head; and
the sperm's discarded midpiece.
Before the cell divides, the pronuclei
will join, so that in the first cleavage
and all cell divisions thereafter all cells
will have the full chromosome number.
The external form of the egg remains
unchanged as the cells, all ol equal
size, divide within it.

Adopicd from ••Humon Embryo, in Iho Loborotoi
by R. C, Edyrordi ond Rolh E, Fowlor. Copyright
IV70 by Sciontdic American, inc. All rig
fetervi

stages of the embryo, and in certain birth defects was expressed as
early as 1957 in experiments on mice, rabbits, and other laboratory
animals. By the mid-1960s, he was publishing articles suggesting the
value of conducting such research on the human level. Of central in-
terest was the egg, both animal and human.

At birth, each woman possesses in her ovaries a lifetime supply of
eggs. At the onset of menstruation, usually only one egg matures at a
time and begins its journey through the oviduct to the uterus. If it is not
fertilized, it disintegrates and passes out of the body. But if fertilization
by sperm occurs— an event that takes place within the oviduct— the egg
starts on a long process of division, or cleavage, and initial develop-
ment of the embryo has begun.

By the time the fertilized egg has entered the uterus, it has divided
into 16 or more cells and has been transformed into a structure called
a blastocyst. If the blastocyst attaches itself to the wall of the uterus,
pregnancy has begun. A placenta is then formed to nourish the em-
bryo, and the nine-month period of development (during which are
formed all of the organs and supporting systems necessary for human
life outside the womb) is under way.

All of this, of course, is a hidden process. Edwards wants to know
what stages and events the egg undergoes between its maturation and
implantation in the uterine wall. Are eggs released in any particular
order? (Or, as he says, "Does each egg have a number assigned to it,
and if so, why?") What hormone systems work to ripen an individual
egg? What are the first steps involved in a single cell, the egg, becom-
ing an organism composed of untold trillions of cells— and what might
go wrong? What chemical changes does a sperm undergo to enable
it to penetrate an egg? And what better way to observe such events
than to let them occur in a test tube, subject to full visual and micro-
scopic analysis?

Even before he began such work with humans, Edwards was aware
of the controversial aspect of the project as well as of the fears that
such tampering with natural processes might draw from the public. In
speeches and papers he began to outline his "defense," contending
that nothing is worth doing in the laboratory unless it is socially valu-
able. He considers the socially valuable aspects of his project as the
following:

An accurate knowledge of the early events in reproduction can help
achieve two goals that at first appear to be contradictory. It could
suggest much more effective means of contraception and thereby help
to achieve world population control. At the same time, many men and
women who want children desperately cannot have them because of
physiological barriers. A common barrier in women is a blockage of
the oviduct. Some men, on the other hand, generate very low volumes
of healthy sperm. To retrieve eggs surgically and to fertilize one under
controlled laboratory conditions with what healthy sperm cells can be
obtained from the husband would be one way of overcoming such
types of infertility.

404

The research timetable

In collaboration with Patrick Steptoe, a senior clinician at Oldham
General Hospital in Lancashire, Edwards' group began the long transi-
tion from animal to human reproductive studies in the mid-1960s.
Eventually, a group of about 50 women volunteered for the experiments
—most of them in expectation of overcoming infertility. Previous ani-
mal experiments indicated that an egg must be at a precise state of
maturity before it can be fertilized in vitro. Early work with the volun-
teers, consequently, was devoted to "gaining control” of the ovulatory
cycle (by hormonal injections) so that the eggs could be taken at pre-
cisely the right stage of development. A standard surgical technique
called laparoscopy — the insertion of a needlelike instrument with an
optical viewing attachment through the volunteer’s navel into the egg
sack — was used to extract the eggs. (The Edwards group plans to im-
plant an in vitro-fertilized egg into a uterus by the same route.)

Several different types of culture media (solutions of salts, proteins,
and other nutrients) had already been used successfully in animal in
vitro-fertilization experiments, and were tested for their applicability
to the human eggs. In September 1970, Edwards and his co-workers
published in Nature a report stating that a number of the human eggs
had not only begun dividing in these test-tube solutions but had been
carried as far as the 16-cell stage of development. A Nature paper of
January 1971 contained evidence that the group had later mastered
the in vitro culture media and had indeed gone far beyond the blasto-
cyst stage — to embryos with 110 or more cells in the test tube.

By late 1971, Edwards was already well into his policy of public si-
lence. Word from his laboratory, however, revealed that no more than
a minor alteration or two to the culture media was needed before a
laboratory-grown blastocyst would be implanted in its natural mother.
When that happens — if it has not already happened the embryo will

be on his or her way to birth.

Both Edwards and his supporters contend that there is far less ris
in producing a deformed infant than the critics predict. Edwards, w o
has been speaking of his work on an international scientific tour circuit,
stated that every expert he has met in this general field has assured him

he is right— and safe enough— to move ahead to P '11

more, there are proven techniques for detecting malformations well

before birth. Taking samples of the fluid from the sac enveloping the
baby, for example, and analyzing the contained cells for genetic or

other abnormalities is one such approach. . .

As Edwards has written: "Bringing such embryos into the light o y

provokes various thoughts and opinions: The beginning test-t^be
babies, armies of carefully planned robots, playing at God in the labora-
tory. ... But every stage of clinical research must be P-^stioned and
care taken to ensure that it is related to social needs and
lated by its own impetus." Edwards states he has no other interests m

altering natural embryonic development processes than to

^ continued on page 408

8 cells

16 cells

morula

blastocyst

When the morula is reached, there are
about 32 cells and indications ol
unequal internal cell development.

The egg soon becomes a hollow sphere
(blastocyst) with a one-cell-thick
wall, the trophoblast. which will
become the parts ol the placenta not
contributed by the mother, and,
heaped to one side, an inner cell mass,
which will become the embryo proper.

405

Pioneering work

The earliest accounts of test-tube conception date back to 1944 when
John Rock and M. F. Menkin of Harvard University Medical School
achieved this experimental fertilization of human ova outside the body.
They obtained ripe eggs from female patients and then exposed them
to sperm in a test tube. No special medium was used to incubate the
eggs, and success was slight. But these experiments marked the be-
ginning of the elucidation of one of nature's prime phenomena.

In 1952, Landrum B. Shettles, a biologist, obstetrician, and gyne-
cologist in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia Univer-
sity, began refining the experiments of Rock and Menkin. He demon-
strated conclusively that in vitro fertilization of human ova is possible.
In the course of performing various operations requiring abdominal
incision into the peritoneal cavity of a woman, he pierced the ovarian
follicles with a needle, causing some of the eggs in their follicular fluid
to aspirate into a syringe. At the same time, without harming the patient,
he excised tiny pieces of the tubal fimbrae, the fingerlike projections
at the end of the Fallopian tubes that receive the egg when it is released
from the ovary, and aspirated some of the mucosa that abounds within
the tubes. From all this, he formulated the culture medium in which the
eggs could mature and become ready for fertilization in the test tube.

When the egg, bathed in the follicular fluid, was ready for fertiliza-
tion, it was placed in a sterile petri dish containing another oxygenated
culture medium. There the prime ingredient was ovulation mucus taken
from the midcervical canal of the woman who provided the egg. Into
this Shettles unleashed millions of sperm cells and let them migrate to
the egg just as they would in nature. At the right moment, he added the
tubal mucosa and tiny bits of fimbrae in order, again, to provide the
chemical components that the sperm normally encounter when they
pass from the uterus into the tubes.

Thus, Shettles first witnessed the drama of human fertilization. The
first report was in the Federation Proceedings, 1953, and 29 subse-
quent publications appeared on in vitro fertilization and the earliest
steps of human development. He watched the ovum, glowing like a
distant but bright-yellow sun on the microscope as it was pummeled
by hundreds of sperm striving for penetration into its interior. The
spectacle that was unfolding before him continued for hours while the
sperm, their heads firmly against the outer membrane of the ovum,
lashed their tails furiously, rotating the egg a full 360 ° every 15 seconds.
At last, one penetrated into the interior of the cell proper, there to
merge with its nucleus and thus achieve fertilization.

In the course of these experiments, various criteria v/ere established
for successful test-tube fertilization that have since become standard
for the researchers in this field. These include the observation of both
sperm head and tail within the egg proper, the elimination of excess
female chromosomes in the second polar body (a minute cell that
separates from the egg during maturation), the pairing of the male and

Courtesy, Dr. Londrum B. Shettles, Columbia University

j

!

female pronuclei, and the actual division of the fertilized cell, showing
that the embryo is growing and developing normally.

All of these criteria were repeatedly satisfied, and several of the
fertilized ova were grown to the blastocyst stage, with more than 100
cells. At this time,.in a woman's body the dividing egg would normally

start to attach itself to the lining of the uterus. When experiments were
first begun, however, too little was known to attempt implanting one of

the test-tube embryos in the uterus.

Since then, a further step has been taken. Shettles aspirated a nearly
mature egg from its follicle in the ovary of a woman undergoing an
operation to correct a defect in one of the Fallopian tubes. The egg was
matured in vitro, fertilized with sperm from the woman s husband,
grown in culture for five days to the blastocyst stage, and then im
planted into the uterus of a second individual scheduled for surgery.
The menstrual cycles of the two women were synchronized, affording
a hospitable environment for the transplanted embryo. Two days a ter
the transplant, the previously scheduled hysterectomy was performed
on the recipient. The implanting embryo was then located, with a dis-
secting microscope, on the upper, posterior lining of the excised
uterus. An examination showed that it was implanting properly and
consisted of several hundred cells. The objective of the procedure was
not to produce a full-term baby but to ascertain whether implantation
could occur, given the circumstances of in vitro fertilization, and to

provide further information before proceeding to the final transplant

— L. B. Shettles

A human egg cell, still within its zona
pellucida, shows two polar bodies
released below it, indication that a
sperm has entered the egg to begin
lertilizing it.

continued from page 405

infertility or to ensure contraception and to perfect means for spotting
defective embryos very early in pregnancy. He sees no point to devel-
oping human cloning methods— to use one set of "desirable” human
genes to produce many living "desirable” duplicates. Also, keeping
the baby in vitro for five or six days is quite enough to accomplish his
socially valuable purposes. There is no justification for attempting to
develop a baby for the full nine-month term in test-tube conditions, he
states. (Austin, incidentally, estimates that such an accomplishment,
at the present rate of advances in embryology, is still about a decade
away. A major barrier currently is lack of knowledge about growing a
placenta in vitro for such an embryo.)

The first steps of human development
can be seen in photomicrographs
of an egg fertilized in vitro: top, the
two-cell stage, 30 hours after
fertilization; middle, a four-cell egg
40 hours after fertilization; and
bottom, a forming blastocyst, the state
of a 4^-day-old embryo. To develop
further, the blastocyst must become
attached to the wall of the uterus.

Yet . . . are Edwards’ good intentions enough?

Edwards’ work is not literally "genetic engineering"— that is, produc-
ing changes in DNA in order to alter an undesirable physical trait or
induce a desirable one. The prospect of such developments is actually
what frightens Watson, Perutz, and many other knowledgeable men:
who will decide what is desirable? But the Edwards' in vitro technique
could conceivably make it much easier to shape the physical traits
and eventually the behavioral characteristics of a baby through genetic
or other types of manipulation.

John M. Thoday, chairman of the genetics department at Cambridge,
notes that determining the physical characteristics of a baby before
birth is a long step toward fixing its behavior as well. Certain physical
types could be isolated that are much easier to "condition” than others,
he speculates. And sooner or later, such methods might conceivably
be employed to satisfy a despotic leader with designs to create and
control an entire race of beings.

Are there indeed some things that it is better nofto know? M. R. Pol-
lock of the University of Edinburgh’s molecular biology department
writes: "I do not believe there is, has been, or could ever be, a scien-
tific discovery potentially of benefit to humanity that might not be
exploited to some degree against mankind, if people want to do so.

Scientific results

The basic scientific advances stemming from the Edwards work to
date, according to his supporters, are (1) confirmation of the fact that
the early development of the human embryo— from conception to
blastocyst stage — is very much like that of the widely used laboratory
animals, (2) isolation of the key hormone actions governing the matura-
tion of the human egg and its release into the oviduct and (3) determi-
nation of the proper conditions for permitting early embryos to develop
outside the womb. As to how such knowledge, and other knowledge
that Edwards’ experiments might produce, may be used, the debate
is wide open. Some possibilities include:

• Coupling the Edwards information with that of the many other
geneticists and life scientists for the purpose of remedying widely

408

recognized pathological defects occurring before birth. Perutz sup-
ports such an approach, noting that at least 1,000 recorded pathologi-
cal syndromes are now classed as being associated with genetic errors
during the prebirth period. A broad-scale public monitoring of even
this goal might be warranted, however, to ensure that "pathological”
is not interpreted in a political or racial sense.

• Using Edwards’ technique, or something that might succeed it, to
clone a genetic blueprint. The usual response to such a possibility is
that cloning (1) is no longer interesting for basic scientific reasons
since it can be done so readily in animals, (2) is unpredictable, since
environmental conditions may lead one intelligent clone into one path
of choices and another in a separate direction, and (3) is not necessary
if reproducing high intelligence is the goal of cloning (as Edwards says,
"There is so much brilliance around today that it is not necessary to
copy genetically one form of it”).

Speculation can take one much further than such alternatives. For
example, would it be better to design people to perform certain jobs
— working underwater with lungs that could extract oxygen from its
liquid form, or adapting humans to life in other worlds with different
gravitational or chemical conditions — or would it be more humane to
use contemporary man's considerable technological skill for dealing
with such specialized existences? Or, more feasible under the Hippo-
cratic Oath of medical ethics, would it be worthwhile to try to encode
DNA to produce brain cells that would regenerate after their normal
"life” as do other cells, thus averting loss of memory and senility,
which have long created a fear of normal human aging, to produce
hearts, kidneys, and livers that could endure more strain, with less
damage, than is the case now; or to produce breasts and uteruses that

were not so highly prone to cancer?

Such questions will not be resolved by deciding whether Edwards
socially valuable goals are worth as much as his critics' moral ones,
dictated as they are by the environments of science and politics today
and by the lives of the individuals proclaiming these goals. Perhaps the
answers will come into clearer focus when an embryo conceived in
vitro is born.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING:

Edwards, R. G., and Fowler, Ruth E., "Human Embryos in the
Laboratory,” Scientific American (December 1970, pp. 44 54).

Edwards, R. G., Purdy, J. M., and Steptoe, P. C., "Fertilization and
Cleavage in vitro of Preovulator Human Oocytes.” Nature (Sept. 26,
1970, pp. 1307-09). and "Human Blastocysts Grown in Culture,” A/a-
fore (Jan. 8, 1971, pp. 132-133).

n I "Rocial Values and Research in
Edwards, R. G.. and Sharpe. D. J., bociai vam

Human Embryology,” Nature (May 14, 1971, pp. 87 91 .

Fuller. Watson (ed.). The Social Impact of Modern Sro/ogy (London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971).

409

Science Prizes

by William Kirk

Although generally considered the most important and prestigious
awards in science, the Nobel Prizes have not recognized many
significant achievements. How are the winners chosen? Should the

system be modified?

Probably the greatest honor a scientist can receive in his lifetime is a
Nobel Prize. And to many scholars and laymen, the Nobel Prize is
science. There are three science prizes— one for outstanding research
in chemistry, one in physics, and one for either physiology or medicine.
(Nobel Prizes also are awarded for high achievement in literature and
for contributions to world peace, and in 1969 a Nobel Memorial Prize
was awarded for research in economics.) No other science prize has
been so highly regarded by the world — and particularly by the United
States — for so long a time. Since the prizes were first awarded in 1901,
winners have returned from the lavish award ceremonies in Stockholm,
to find that they are national heroes. Almost everything they ask for in
money or equipment for further research is granted by a grateful nation
or university. They are sought after as government advisors, as univer-
sity presidents, as general savants who can make the unknown know-
able. Andre Lwoff, who shared the 1965 prize in physiology/medicine
with two other French geneticists, Jacques Monod and Franpois Jacob,
summed it up this way: "We have gone from zero to the condition of
movie stars.”

Not the least of a Nobel laureate's rewards is prize money that may
reach $90,000 or more, but the amount of cash associated with the
prizes is only one reason for the Nobel prestige. Equally as important
is Sweden's reputation as a nation that values objectivity and high in-
tellectual achievement — and the widely held respect for the standards
of judgment used by Swedish scientists who select the winners.

WILLIAM KIRK is a Iree-lance
science writer.

For reasons such as these, the casual remarks of a young Swedish
geneticist, chatting with a visitor in the summer of 1971, came as a
shock. For most of his professional life, the geneticist had been used
to the very best in science. He was the protege of a Nobel Prize judge.
It was his privilege to work in the laboratories of one of the world’s
leading centers for research in life sciences, Sweden's Royal Caroline
Medico-Chirurgical Institute with a faculty that not only includes Nobel
laureates but which also has the final say each year on who wins the
physiology/medicine prize. And in the middle of a conversation about
the significance and standards of the prize, he was to say: "Who cares?
Nobel prizes aren’t all that important. I doubt that it is useful to continue
to hand out the prizes. It was all right earlier in the century when there
were very few scientists who needed all the encouragement they could
get. But much of the best research in science and technology today is
not eligible for prize consideration. Very few of the younger scientists
here pay any attention to it at all. The prize simply does not affect their
lives.’’

This was one of the more critical remarks encountered during recent
interviews with Nobel officials and judges and a cross-section of
Swedish governmental and academic figures. Some of these men had
equally surprising responses. "So much modern science is excluded
from Nobel consideration,” remarked Gosta Funke, secretary-general
of the Swedish government’s two principal organizations for financing
research in the life sciences, physics, and mathematics. "It’s a pity.
There should be several more prizes. In fact, I discussed this need with
the Ford Foundation people several years ago, but nothing came of if
—our Nobel officials simply said they did not want a Ford prize."

Two of the most influential Nobel judges, Erik Rudberg and the late
Arne Tiselius, expressed similar views. "Too often we are regarded as
the world’s supreme court in science," said Tiselius, a Nobel laureate
himself (chemistry, 1948), a former president of the principal adminis-
trative and financing body for the prizes, the Nobel Foundation, and at
the time the chairman of the chemistry prize committee, "This is unfor-
tunate. We operate on much too narrow a base to reward all of the
remarkable people in science today.” And Rudberg, who is chairman
of the physics prize committee as well as the permanent secretary of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, made this statement: "There
is a long list of scientific and technical achievements that will never get
the prize, at least as long as it remains in its present form. Such ex-
clusions do raise a legitimate question about the relevance of the
prize.”

Exclusions?

If archaeologists 1,000 years from now were attempting to piece to-
gether an accurate picture of 20th century science and technology,
using only the minutes, reports, and written conclusions of the Nobel
prize awarding bodies, what a strange society these records would
reveal. These documents would show that 20th century society was

412

unquestionably advanced: that 20th century scientists possessed an
excellent basic understanding of hov/ the atomic nucleus was orga-
nized; of how genetic molecules encode and pass along the physical
traits of all forms of life from generation to generation: of how chemical
elements are "fused” within the interior of the sun and other stars to
produce vast amounts of thermonuclear heat for the warming of such
planets as earth; of how nerve cells exchange information chemically
and electrically: of vaccines and vitamins: of lasers, transistors, and
wireless communication. Many other discoveries of similar importance
would demonstrate that the 20th century scientists were extremely
clever in extracting information from a reluctant, secretive nature.

Yet how limited 20th century scientists would appear to be in other
areas. The Nobel documents provide no evidence of computers, no
indication of the existence of a program or means for exploring space
—or even the oceans; nothing showing 20th century knowledge of the
physical history of the planet — of how mountains grew, how oceans
v/ere formed, or how massive supercontinents sundered and drifted
apart to form Antarctica, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. There
is not even a hint that scientists of the era knew how atmospheric pres-
sure systems and fronts shaped the weather; or how to measure the
distance to a star; or of the existence of exploding non-stars outside
the galaxy; or how animals, including humans, communicate or re-
produce. The only medicines mentioned are penicillin, the sulfa drugs,
and a handful of antibiotics, and the only synthetic fiber, rayon. And
on the disciplines of psychiatry and psychology— nothing, a blank. The
evident crudity of 20th century science would be much more heavily
underscored, however, by the omissions of the sure signs of an ad-
vanced civilization — the development of a body of "pure mathematics.
The Nobel documents give no evidence of the existence of such
knowledge.

These future archaeologists also would find no trace of certain
seminal figures in 20th century science and technology. There is noth-
ing about Mendeleyev bringing the chaotic science of chemistry into
predictable order with a periodic table of chemical elements; no men-
tion of Thomas Edison or electric lights or recording machines; noth-
ing on the Wright brothers and airplanes or on K. E. Tsiolkovski, Robert
H. Goddard, and Wernher von Braun and the development of rocketry,
and no hint of Henry Ford or the transformation of the 20th century by
the development of the techniques of mass production.

And although these future archaeologists would find some names of
scientists that would be recognizable to most 20th century sc oo
children, these scientists would not always be cited for their
important accomplishments. Albert Einstein is there, honore or
describing how a ray of light releases electrons from the metallic sur-
face it strikes (the photoelectric effect)-good solid physics but cer-
tainly not the product of a mind capable of suggesting how gravity
might give shape to the universe, or how time itself may in some way
be related to the speed of light, or how matter and energy are inter-

413

The Betrmann Archive

Albert Einstein, winner ol the Nobel
Prize tor Physics in 1921
for his "services to theoretical
physics," leads an informal seminar
at the Institute for Advanced Study
at Princeton, N.J. Einstein worked
at the institute from 1933
until his death in 1955.

Ivan Pavlov (center, with beard)
conducts an operation on a dog
3t his institute in Leningrad.
A Russian physiologist. Pavlov won
the Nobel Prize for Physiology
or Medicine in 1904 for his work
on the action of the digestive glands,
but he became best known
lor his studies of conditioned
reflexes in dogs and other animals.

changeable. And yes, there is Ivan Pavlov, honored for his studies of
gastric juice secretion. Could that possibly be the same man whose
discoveries of conditioned reflexes would have profound impact on
the development of experimental psychology and the understanding
of mental illness? The Nobel documents do not say.

It would also appear that 20th century scientists did not work to-
gether in large groups as indicated by the fact that the Nobel docu-
ments show that a prize was never awarded to more than three people.
Would future archaeologists conclude this to be at least part of the
reason for the apparent lapses in 20th century scientific creativity?
They might consider this the reason that scientists were unable to
send vehicles into space or to harness nuclear and thermonuclear
energy, all impossible undertakings without large research and de-
velopment teams.

There is no doubt, the archaeologists would probably conclude, that
20th century scientific knowledge was very unevenly developed. Based
on the evidence provided in the Nobel documents, its gaps were more
remarkable than its achievements.

A defense of prize selection procedures

Almost all of the Nobel judges interviewed were aware, in varying de-
gree, of such criticism and of the resulting charges that the prize is
narrow, irrelevant, and obsolete. One Nobel judge, Bdrje Uvnas, chair-
man of Sweden's Royal Caroline Institute’s pharmacology department,
made this remark: "I'm surprised how highly appraised the prizes are.
It is difficult to understand. Of course we need criticism on our choices
of winners, but the criticism we get is usually very mild."

414

But in defense of prize selection procedures the judges offered a
number of arguments:

1. Do not confuse science with technoiogy. Nobel Prizes are de-
signed to reward discoveries about the organization and function of
living and inanimate matter. How such discoveries may be applied to
create computers, rockets, or better mouse traps— is outside of our
scope. Besides, the men who developed the great technological and
industrial inventions such as the telephone, the wide variety of phar-
maceuticals, and the like were amply rewarded by the economy and
have no need for our prize money.

2. The wiii of Aifred Nobel, drafted in 1895, which is the basis for the
prizes, excludes several of the established basic sciences and, of
course, many of the newer behavioral sciences. That is why there have
been no prizes in astronomy or geology, for example (even though
these might be considered to be branches of physics) or in "pure”
mathematics. Mathematics is of Nobel prize interest only when it is
applied in making fundamental discoveries within chemistry, physics,
medicine, and physiology.

3. The statutes of the Nobel Foundation, formed to carryout Nobel s
will, limit the number of winners of a single prize to three. This is why
such things as the space program and the computer are not eligible
for the prize. Each development required the efforts of thousands of
people, and the Nobel committees were unable to single out the three

most important individuals.

4. Sometimes it takes years for a scientific discovery to be confirmed,
found useful, and generally accepted by other scientists. Many of the
"gaps" the future archaeologists might find, based on interpretation
of Nobel records, are in this category. Some of them will doubtlessly
receive future prizes, but more solid evidence of their value is needed
first. Unfortunately, by the time such general acceptance comes, some
of the scientists will be dead. That is why Mendeleyev, for example, who
was nominated several times, received no prize. And for Einstein s

theories of general and special relativity still more confirmation is
needed, although such confirmations are still gradually being made.
And even if the theories are completely upheld, Einstein is dead too.

5. There are simply too many good scientists today and too few
prizes. Each year some 10 to 20 men are judged by the Nobel commit
tees to be worthy of winning each of the three prizes. Again, only a
maximum of three scientists may be named for each prize. All of t
prizeworthy candidates may be outstanding but may represent scien-
tific fields that are impossible to compare. In medicine, for example,
which is more important-a basic discovery in genetics or cel! function,
a spectacular surgical technique, or an important vaccine. The dt -
ficulty of answering such questions makes it a foregone conclusion
that much good work will not receive Nobel recognition.

6. Admittedly, there are inconsistencies and even errors m the
prizes awarded over the past 71 years. The selection committees are
human and subject to error. There are also legitimate philosophical

415

differences among Nobel judges even now on what scientific excel-
lence might be. Even the three Nobel science prize committees have
views and procedures that differ from each other.

7. If the world has an over/nf/ated view of the science prizes, that
is not the fault of the Nobel committees or the Nobel Foundation.
Probably the most representative defense of the prize record was given
by Carl .Gustave Bernhard, also a Nobel judge and a recent president
of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. As he writes in the 1971
edition of the Nobel Foundation's official book on the prizes, Nobel:
The Man and His Prizes: 'That the Nobel Prizes, in spite of these re-
strictions have come to be regarded as the highest scientific distinc-
tions in the whole world, can therefore only mean that certain well-
defined discoveries (emphasis added) have in fact been of paramount
importance to the general progress of science."

Alfred Nobel’s will

Accepting such restrictions, what are the standards used to separate
the scientific wheat from the chaff? How are prize candidates found
and examined? What is a discovery and when is it of benefit to man-
kind?

Most Nobel judges and officials continually refer to the will, the
statutes, and the wishes of Alfred Nobel as explained by his friends’
memories of his actions, conversations, and letters in defending prize
selection procedure. With those guidelines, the explanation of the
Nobel prize standards of excellence in science begins.

Nobel’s will was very brief and general. On a single sheet, he wrote
only that his vast estate should be invested safely with the resulting
interest to be distributed annually "to those who, during the preceding
year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind.” His specif-
ic instructions were that the interest be divided five ways, with three
of these earmarked for physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine
(the other two for literature and peace); that each science prize was
to go to the person making "the most important discovery" in the three
fields (as well as for "inventions” in physics and "improvements" in
chemistry): that the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences would select
the winners of the chemistry and physics av/ards, while physiology/
medicine would be the province of Sweden’s Royal Caroline Institute:
and that the winners might be of any nationality.

The will created much initial confusion among disappointed relatives
and business associates, among the governments of the various na-
tions where Nobel occasionally lived or operated his business empire,
and among the membership of the science academy and the Royal
Caroline Institute (some of whom feared that administration of the
awards would bring political pressures and lobbying into their quiet
havens of research). However, influential Swedish academics and
industrialists — with the willing assistance of the Swedish King Oscar II
— brought about an agreement, established the parent Nobel Founda-
tion. and v/rote the statutes.

416

The Nobel statutes

The statutes, which are much more detailed than Nobel’s will, con-
tained several interesting changes. Whereas Nobel wrote that each
prize should go to a "person,” presumably meaning one individual, the
statutes specified that three— but no more— could share it. Apparently
the intent was twofold. The statute writers recognized that an outstand-
ing scientific work was seldom the work of one man, but to divide the
prize money more than three ways would produce sums so small that
the winners could finance very little future research. The unwitting
effect of this provision, however, was forever to exclude discoveries
made by large research groups. Also discarded from the will was the
directive that the prize be awarded for a scientific achievement made
during "the preceding year.” The way of science is to treat discoveries
very cautiously — to first publish them in a respected professional jour-
nal, to allow other scientists to check every detail in search of error or
over-enthusiastic claims, to see if they survive the test of time. Decades
can roll by before scientific discoveries are accepted as valid. (The
most interesting example of this was the case of Francis Peyton Rous
of the United States, who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1966 for experiments demonstrating that cancer can be
transmitted by a virus. The experiments were first reported in 1910!)

The Nobel will says nothing about the cloaking of the prize selection
procedure — the sorting out of the winners from the losers in secrecy.
The statutes, however, make selection off limits to outside scrutiny.
Minutes of meetings by the three prize committees were directed to be
extremely brief and to contain no evidence of disagreement among
individual committee members over who should or should not win.

Votes are not recorded, the names of all of the scientists considered
for the prize in any one year are not released, and the lengthy special
reports prepared on the scientific merit of the dozens of nominees are
available for inspection only by members of the faculty of the Royal
Caroline Institute and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. For
some 70 years, then, the nitty-gritty of determining who is "prize-
worthy" and who is not, the fine detail of the value judgments rendered
on what is good, bad, or indifferent in science has remained a well kep
S0cr©t

The statute makers no doubt were motivated by the best of intentions.
To conduct the selection in the open would subject Nobel judges to
political influence and lobbying on behalf of particular scientist-
candidates, thus destroying the objectivity of the scientific
they reasoned. The practice is still defended by Nobel judges who add
that it would be unkind to reveal to the world the names of those candi-
dates found to be unqualified for the prize. And the fact that the prizes
are still highly regarded throughout the world today m many scientific
and governmental circles reflects favorably, the judges believe, not
only on the high quality of accomplishment by the prize winners over
the past seven decades, but also on the policy of not airing the sel c-
tion controversies (or the opinions behind value judgments) in public.

The Bettmonn Archive

Alfred Nobel willed the bulk
of his vast estate to establish
the prizes that bear his name.

A Swedish chemist and engineer, Nobel
amassed his fortune by the invention
and manufacture of dynamite
and other expfosives and by investments
in oil fields.

417

Ironically, the Nobel judges themselves suffer from the secrecy man-
date in the statutes. Stockholm conversations can be counted upon to
produce rumors that such secrecy conceals prejudice or incompetence
among the judges. The policy of secrecy also encourages the Swedish
political left to suggest frequently in print that Marcus Wallenberg,
one of the four members of the Nobel Foundation's governing board
and a Rothschild-like figure with great influence in Swedish banking
and industrial circles, may also influence prize awards. This is one
reason, the left will argue, that the prizes frequently go to scientists
of Western anti-Communist nations. (Through 1971, 84 science prizes
had been awarded to the United States, 46 to Germany, 50 to Great
Britain, 21 to France, and only 9 to the Soviet Union— out of a total
of 278 for all nations over the 71 years. Scientists of the People's
Republic of China have declined to submit prize nominations on
the grounds that they do not believe in prizes awarded on an in-
dividual, non-collective basis.) The judges themselves shrug off such
attacks as unfounded and generally unworthy of reply. Since the judges
cannot produce Nobel records and minutes to defend their choices
and actions, however, the rumors continue.

But a far more serious ramification of the secrecy poiicy is that it
might result in the wrong man winning the prize. One old tradition,
stemming from the early days of the statutes, is to avoid letting a
science nominee know he is being considered for the prize. Yet the
judges are committed to conduct as thorough an investigation as
possible of the nominee's scientific work, not only to determine its
merit as a “discovery” but also to see if he was the first or most im-
portant contributor to it. One senior Nobel judge, Sven Gard, com-
mented that the policy forces Nobel investigators to operate so oblique-
ly-trying not to tip off the nominee— that an erroneous assessment of
a candidate's work might result.

A case can be made, according to most judges interviewed, that the
secrecy policy denies the world's scholars access to civilization's
longest and most complete record of science criticism and analysis.
Perhaps the most valuable of these records are the lengthy investiga-
tions on scores of nominees each year. In a world where the vast
majority of people understand little of the methods and goals of science
—and increasingly attribute sinister purposes to it— the opening of the
Nobel archives might, at the very least, produce a much more accurate
picture of just what science can or cannot do.

That the secrecy policy has remained unchallenged for seven de-
cades is particularly bizarre in Sweden. For more than 200 years,
Sweden has operated under a government documents act that permits
anyone to demand letters, memoranda, reports, and general docu-
ments on civil governmental affairs— and to have them produced by
the civil servant approached on the spot. Swedish universities are
nationalized, and since all Nobel judges are university men who are
considered government employees, there is a question of whether they
could deny access to the archives if such access were requested.

418

But perhaps the most important element of the statutes was clearly
to invest prize decision powers in the hands of university professors
specializing not in engineering or the applied sciences but in the fun-
damental sciences. Their decisions over seven decades have generally
favored the basic scientific discovery— which often appears at first to
be of no more than intellectual or cultural interest— at the expense of
many of the revolutionary technological developments of the century
(although occasionally machines or "practical" processes have been
honored). Nobel himself was vitally interested in such basic science
and wanted to give impetus to its development. Ironically, however,
Nobel was also one of the 19th century’s supreme industrial tech-
nologists.

Finally, the statutes roughly outlined how the judges were to go
about canvassing the world for prizeworthy scientists. By 1971, these
general instructions had been refined into a set procedure (see "How
Nobel prizewinners are selected," pages 420-421).

What constitutes a “discovery?”

Language is full of words like "discovery," the meaning of which every-
one is quite sure he understands. However, one often finds that the
world is no more agreed on its meaning than it is on ‘ good. There is
no doubt that the meaning was clear to Alfred Nobel when he used the
word in his will. It is probably very clear in meaning to his successors,
the judges, although they are rather vague in discussing its significance
with outsiders. When asked about what they considered discovery
to mean in a Nobel context, the judges responded:

—"Something unexpected.”

—"A big step.”

— “A development which opens an entire new field of research.^^

Slightly more detailed is this definition by Nobel judge Gard: ’ If a
scientist has followed a systematic research theme throughout his
career that has at last answered a set of complex questions, he has
made a discovery.” Nobel laureate Ulf von Euler (who is also the son of
a Nobel laureate): "It is something that no one believes at first because
it departs too sharply from the norm. If it were good average
would be believed.” And Nobel laureate Axel Hugo Theorell: ' A dis-
covery can be the result of a quick, simple experiment that yields a
answer so clear and obvious that it is unnecessary for others to chec

or repeat the experiment.”

According to classic scientific practice, the minimum ''® 90 ire
ment for a discovery is that it be published in a respected scientific
journal. A great development kept secret— not presenle e ore a
scientific audience for a period of checking and confirrnation is
simply not a ’’discovery.” If a considerable number of scientists drop
What they are doing to verify a development by another person-and
find it is correct and interesting enough to enter that field themselves
— it is indeed a valuable discovery.

continued on page 422
419

The members of the Royal Swedish
Academy ol Sciences meet annually
to select the winners ol the prizes
in physics and chemistry.
This 1964 gathering chose Dorothy
Crowfoot Hodgkin to receive
the chemistry award and Charles
H. Townes, Nikolai G. Basov,
and Aleksandr M. Prokhorov to share
the honor in physics.

How Nobel prizewinners are selected

The Nobel awards complex is to Sweden as the Vatican is to Italy. It is
autonomous and international. The judges constitute their own par-
liament, and preside over an elaborate diplomatic and scientific intelli-
gence network. This Nobel nation begins a new year's activities each
fall, and it is also then that the intelligence network is the most active.

The three science prize committees begin the new annual cycle by
sending out 2,000 to 3,000 confidential letters. The purpose of the
letters is to ask network members for suggestions about top candidates
for the prizes. The identity of the letter recipients is not revealed out-
side of Nobel circles. It is generally known, however, that they are
senior academics. Their ranks, of course, include all the members of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the senior faculty of the
Royal Caroline Medico-Chirurgical Institute (each of whom are en-
couraged to informally contact their own colleagues abroad in search
of nominees), senior professors at all the major Scandinavian univer-
sities, and leading scientists from two to three universities in each of
the scientifically developed European and Asian nations as well as
from perhaps a dozen U.S. universities. The principal science acade-
mies throughout the world, including the Soviet Academy of Sciences,
are contacted, as are the principal officials of major research installa-
tions such as the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN),
a high-energy physics laboratory in Switzerland: Great Britain’s Jodrell
Bank astrophysical observatory; the U.S. government National Insti-
tutes of Health; and the U.S. National Accelerator Laboratory in Bata-
via, III. Final key elements of this intelligence gathering network are the
previously chosen Nobel laureates.

UPl Compi*

The network then informs Stockholm on the prospects that look best i
that year. The letters of nomination they return are in themselves fairly
detailed investigations of individual candidates that spell out clearly
the nature of a scientist’s work.

No further nominations are accepted after the following February 1.
Then, the prize activities once more become an exclusively Swedish
show. A rough weeding out is performed by members of the three
committees. Immediately discarded are the names of scientists who
nominate themselves (including those names sent by a candidate’s
loving wife — which actually has happened). The judges live by a kind | '
of Robert’s Rules of Order that cherishes merit coupled with modesty '

and is offended by what appear to be pressure tactics involving lobby-
ing and publicity. An outstanding scientist may prejudice himself in
the eyes of the judges by appearing to be trying too hard to win the
prize. Finally, the best candidates must have a large body of published
scientific work to their credit that can be read and checked in detail
by the judges.

By summer, each committee has narrowed the list down to between
1 0 to 20 candidates. These are selected for the intensive investigations
mentioned earlier. Senior judges sometimes are asked to prepare as
many as 8 or 10 such reports. On occasion, a young outsider (not a
judge or a person affiliated with the awards machinery) is asked to
conduct an investigation. In this phase, selected members of the inter
national intelligence network may again be contacted for much more
detailed information on a candidate. Judges attend international scien
tific conferences, inquiring discreetly about this or that candidate but
always, of course, denying that anyone actually is a candidate.

In an average year, the name of the winner is usually known by the
judges by July. The remainder of the summer is spent in committee
meetings and the writing of the final "Committee Report and Reco
mendations." The reports, containing all the investigations p u
recommendation for a winner, are formally presented to the u m
bership of the Royal Caroline senior faculty and the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences in fall meetings (a year after the annual eye e
began). On these meeting days, members of the two
into a large auditorium and are presented a gol en ° ® attending
about $25 in cash if they already have enoug me a dorse

the debate and vote. Usually, the debate is brief, and the
the committee recommendations (although ou

such recommendations have been altered or ignored on three or four

occasions since World War H)^ the

Then, the press ,s informed ^ ,^,3, remains is for

world is presented its nev/ Siegfrieds j thpir Mnhpl

^ cjtnrkholm in December to deliver their Nobel

the winners to come to StocKnoim II r.ir-k nn

addresses, to be congratulated by the King of

their checks. But by then, the Nobel committees

cycle of activity, receiving nominations, keeping m touch with

netv/ork, pondering the next year s prizewinn

Culver Pictures

Marie Curie, a Poiish-barn French
physicist, won Nobei prizes in 1903
and 1911. She shared the first award,
in physics, with her husband Pierre
and Antoine Becquerei for their
pioneering investigations
into the nature of radioactivity.

The 1911 prize, in chemistry,
was for the isolation of pure radium.

continued from page 419

The most commonly mentioned examples of great discoveries, in
the opinion of those judges who will discuss the subject, are Wilhelm
Rbntgen's discovery of X rays and the Antoine Henri Becquerei and
Marie and Pierre Curie discovery and exploration of the nature of radio-
activity. These were revelations of a fundamental property of matter
which took the scientific world by surprise, opened vast new fieids of
research, and were applied in solving a huge variety of practical and
scientific problems. Concerning more recent awards, the entire string
of prizes given for genetics research since the 1950s is cited by the
judges as examples of key discoveries. In that area, the name most
frequently mentioned is that of Marshall W. Nirenberg, who shared the
1968 prize with Robert W. Holley and H. Gobind Khorana for work in
deciphering the genetic code.

Erik Rudberg provided a more detailed analysis on what constitutes
a Nobel-level discovery. He labeled most of his comments "personal
opinions” that may or may not be shared by other judges. The first
type of prizeworthy discovery he mentioned was in the class of "an
advanced experimental technique or instrument that makes it pos-
sible for science to measure a phenomenon for the first time." Ex-
amples in physics include the cyclotron developed by Ernest Law-
rence of the United States, the 1939 laureate. The cyclotron represented
an entirely new approach at that time for probing the atomic nucleus
with beams of high-energy electrons. Another example cited is the
hydrogen bubble chamber developed by Donald Glaser of the United
States (and honored by the physics award in 1960). The device permits
a photographic record to be made of fragments broken from an atomic
nucleus by a beam of probing particles.

"On the other hand, I would also give special consideration to a
Nobel prize candidate who made an important finding with less-than-
adequate instruments," Rudberg said. "That would be more impressive
than the scientist who made a finding simply by pressing a button on
a very sophisticated device." An example in point, he added, was the
1964 award to Charles H. Townes of the United States and to Nikolai
G. Basov and Aleksandr M. Prokhorov of the Soviet Union for discover-
ing the principles of the maser, and, indirectly, the laser. The two Soviet
scientists worked in much more primitive laboratory conditions than
Townes, but still managed to produce valuable and relevant results.
(The award, incidentally, was delayed for several years, said Rudberg,
because of the difficulty of obtaining information on the Soviet work.)

It is often a frustrating job to determine whether a discovery is some-
thing totally new or is merely a continuation of work done by others.
One could argue philosophically, for example, that many 20th-century
discoveries were simply continuations of work started by Archimedes
or Democritus. Consequently, the Nobel judge looks principally for
something Rudberg describes as the "sudden jump.” Previous findings
plotted on a graph, for example, would describe no more than a gently
rising curve when compared to the sharp upward rise of the Nobel-level

422

discovery. An example is the 1969 physics award to Murray Gell-Mann
of the United States for his theories on how the components of the
atomic nucleus are organized. His "symmetry scheme" of nuclear
components was later largely confirmed when a research team dis-
covered a partiole, the. Omega Minus, which his theory had predicted.
Another example of the sudden jump was in the field of semiconductors
and transistors, which had drawn the attention of many physicists. The
contributions of the U.S. team of William Shockley, John Bardeen, and
Walter Brattain were sufficiently more precise and dramatic to justify
the award of the 1956 physics prize to them, said Rudberg.

One recent award suggests an interesting change in traditional Nobel
discovery standards and one that eventually may make findings by
large research groups eligible. Luis W. Alvarez of the United States
received the 1 968 physics prize for his work in directing the accelerator
team that confirmed the theories of Gell-Mann. The development of
new experimental techniques and instruments was one reason for the
award, explained Rudberg, as were the achievements of Alvarez in
analyzing the extremely complex information obtained from the experi-
ments. But for probably the first time, the judges also recognized a
researcher's ability to administrate, to organize, and to coordinate a
large team working on a difficult problem.

The discovery then remains a term of multiple definitions. In most
cases, other judges said, when there is disagreement on which of a
number of findings is the most legitimate, the contest is usually de^
cided on the basis of which has brought more “benefit to mankind.
The vagueness leaves the judges much room for maneuver in making
award selections. Do they ever abuse this flexibility and allow prejudice
to influence their choices? Rudberg's reply was generally echoed by
other judges interviewed. "To my knowledge, very definitely not. I be
lieve that to be the case for all the science prizes. However, in a critica
international situation, for example, the wording of the award citation
may be dampened a bit for other than purely scientific reasons.

Conclusion ..

The awarding of the prizes, then, has served high purposes over the

past seven decades in stimulating the growth of certain of the basic

sciences. The award activity has probably been more air and objective

in the hands of honest and qualified men from

such as Sweden than it might have been under t econ ro

more nationalistic and politically ambitious _ .. ,

coveries honored by the prizes do not, in any

the best that has been produced in science

century man. Errors have been made, but scores of important scien sts

Who i^ght otherwise have been ow of w^

^ ^ u « Kaon allowed to bask in the glow of worio

for financial reasons have been a

admiration and to develop according narrow in scooe

. . tn manv to be entirely too narrow in scope

although the prizes appear to many intoniionc

u fi.ifiii Alfred Nobel s good intentions,
today — may be enough to fulfill Aiir

UPl Compix

King Gustavus V of Sweden (left)
congratulates Irene Joliot-Curie,
daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie,
for winning the 1935 Nobel Prize
for Chemistry with her husband
Frederic, standing behind her.

The JoUot-Curies won the award
for synthesizing artificial
radioactive elements.

423

by Charles VJCiddl

After many years of not having enough manpower in science,
the United Slates now shows signs of having loo much. Have we
trained too many scientists?

For nearly 30 years — from the beginning of Worid War H until the end
of the 1960s — the United States faced continuing shortages of all kinds
of manpower with advanced training, and particularly scientists and
engineers. Only brief episodes in specialized fields disturbed the pic-
ture of demand that exceeded supply. All of the signs of shortage were
present during this period; salaries rose rapidly; recruitment of both
new holders of advanced degrees and older workers ranged from
active to frantic; employers offered attractive fringe benefits, perqui-
sites, and amenities to supplement salaries; the output of Ph.D.s rose
rapidly in response to high demand; highly-trained foreigners relocated
in the United States at a rate sufficient to generate heated debates in
the United Nations with charges that the United States was draining
from other nations the brains that they needed for economic and social
progress; and, finally, mobility was high— virtually always leading to
better jobs.

But, over the past several years there was a sharp reversal of the
shortages that this nation had grown to accept as facts of life. News-
papers, magazines, and professional journals were full of stories of
unemployed scientists and engineers and of the bleak future they
faced. What caused this sudden shift? What is the real situation? Is
Unemployment a passing phenomenon or a warning signal of long-
range trouble? Are we overproducing Ph.D.s? What is wise public
policy, now and for the future? This essay examines these questions
as they relate to the top cut of the nation's scientific and engineering
manpower^ — those with a Ph.D. degree — and it includes social scien-
tists as well as those in the physical and biological sciences.

CHARLES V. KIDD is director of the
courtcii on federal relations of the
Association of American Universities
and the author o/ American Universities
end Federal Research.

Unemployment among scientists and engineers

Unemployment among scientists and engineers is so novel that exag-
gerated stories have been circulated widely. The actual unemployment
rate among scientists in the spring of 1 971 was 2.6%, as compared with
1.5% in the spring of 1970. The unemployment rate among the entire
labor force for the spring of 1 971 was 6.5%. So for scientists as a whole,
the unemployment rate remained quite low. The general impression
that unemployment was higher probably rested on the existence of
pockets of unemployment in particular age groups, geographical areas,
disciplines, and levels of training. For example, in the spring of 1971,
in Seattle, Wash., a city hard hit by the reduction of work in aerospace
companies, 5.6% of all scientists were unemployed. Nationwide, 5.3%
of all scientists under the age of 29, 3.9% of the physicists, and 3.8% of
the sociologists were unemployed. Most significantly the unemploy-
ment rate among those scientists with only a bachelor's degree was
4.1%, while only 1.4% of those with a doctorate were unemployed. The
idea that there was widespread unemployment among Ph.D.s in
science, or in any field, was contrary to fact. Moreover, even among
the recent graduates, unemployment rates for holders of Ph.D.s in
science were low. In the early months of 1971, only 0.5% of those who
received a Ph.D. degree in science in 1969 and 1.1% of those who
received the degree in 1970 were unemployed. The unemployment
rates were only slightly higher among those with degrees from the less
prestigious institutions. New Ph.D.s had to look harder and longer for
jobs, and while they were looking, they were unemployed. After a long
search, many of them did not land the job they preferred, but few— only
1.2%— took jobs that did not adequately make use of their graduate
training.

Unemployment at this level certainly did not indicate that the country
had trained too many scientists and engineers. Changes in a dynamic
economy are certain to produce unemployment as emphasis shifts
from one field to another. However, those unemployment levels may
presage a long-range situation in which a degree of unemployment
among scientists and engineers will continue, and in which many
scientists and engineers may be forced to take jobs that are neither in
universities nor in research and development.

What happened?

The output of Ph.D.s in science and engineering jumped fantastically
in recent years, and then the demand for their services slackened. This
produced unemployment. Let us look at each development in some
detail.

There were as many Ph.D.s in science and engineering produced in
' the United States in the decade of the 1960s (112,000) as were gradu-
ated in the nation’s entire prior history (111,000, see Table). This tre-
mendous acceleration of output, which was roughly equal in all fields
of science, engineering, and the nonsciences, required a continuing
rapid growth of the capacity of the economy to absorb Ph.D.s.

426

Ph.D.s graduated in the United States 1880-1974

year

total

scientists and
engineers

scientists and
engineers
as % of total

1880-1929

23,000

15,000

65

1930-39

26,000

18,000

70

1940-44

15,000

10,000

i

66

1945-49

16,000

11,000

70

1950-54

40,000

27,000

67

1955-59

45,000

30,000

66

1960-64

60,000

41,000

66

1965-69

100,000

71,000

70

1970-74

160,000

101,000

63

Until 1968, the absorptive capacity did expand at the rate required
to provide jobs for the new Ph.D.s. College and university enrollments,
including enrollment in graduate science and engineering, doubled
from three million to six million between 1960 and 1969. This generated
a demand for new faculty members, and full-time faculty in colleges
and universities increased from 170,000 in 1960 to 290,000 in 1969.
Federal research and development expenditures grew steadily. From
1953 through 1961, the average annual growth rate of federal research
and development expenditures was 16.3%, and private research and
development expenditures rose by 10.1% a year. The comparable rates

from 1961 through 1966 were 8.6 and 9.4%.

But between 1966 and 1968 things began to change. For example,
from 1966 through 1971, federal research and development expendi-
tures rose by only 1% a year and in real terms they declined by 3/c a
year. The aerospace cuts were particularly hard on engineers. Then
came the general economic slowdown, with a 3% reduction in indus-
trial research and development expenditures from '"dustrial sources
in 1970. These downward pressures were augmented by difficulties in
the academic field. Universities, the prime academic employers of
Ph.D.s. ran into steadily mounting financial difficulties Graduate
schools were particularly hard hit because of the federal slowdown in
research and development expenditures and in their reduced support
of graduate students. All of these factors combined explain the painful

adjustments in the labor market.

427

What does the future hold?

Let us start with an examination of the existing pool of scientists and
engineers. The United States now has about 160,000 scientists and
engineers with Ph.D. degrees. They are distributed as follows;

Employer

*>3

Universities and colleges

60

Private industry

25

Government

10

Other

5

Therefore, the question is this: How rapidly will that pool expand over
the next decade, and will the expanded pool be productively employed
— and if so, where? Answers to such questions involve forecasting, and
forecasting is now an imperfect art. One problem is that forecasts in
the social sciences are not simply efforts to foretell what will happen.
They can and often do influence the course of events. For example, a
forecast of overproduction of engineers with Ph.D.s can be one of the
factors leading to a decrease in enrollment and eventually in the output
of Ph.D.s. The problem is further complicated by the longtime required
to produce a Ph.D. and by the long working life of the average Ph.D.
A student who is pondering whether to become a Ph.D. candidate
must, so far as job prospects influence him, consider not the current
market but the market when he first looks for a job five years later and
the market over the succeeding 30 years of his working life. To the
extent that people believe manpower forecasts and act upon them, the
forecasts are doomed to error unless those who make them predict
the effects of their own forecasts. The more widely the forecasts are
publicized the greater the extent to which they become an active
factor influencing the trend of events.

Many powerful forces will continue to promote a continuing expan-
sion of all graduate study, including that of the sciences and engineer-
ing. University science and engineering departments need graduate
programs, and they need graduate students. The complexity of tech-
nology will continue to generate substantial demands for doctorates
in engineering. Substantial support for students v/ill continue, from
one source or another, and large amounts of research money will
continue to flow into universities. So, all things considered, there is a
great deal of momentum in the s>3tem. Those students already in
graduate school programs probably will push on to the Ph.D. degree
in about the same proportions as in the past.

One would think that most students would shy a%vay from enrolling
for graduate work in science because of the stories of current un-
employment forecasts and the declining support for science students.
Rapid increases in graduate enrollment in science and engineering
that characterized the ISSDs have indeed slowed down. During the
1960s graduate enrollment in the ghj-sical sciences and engineering
more than doubled: in mathematics and the biological sciences, enroll-
ment almost tripled. But in the fall of 1970 and again in the fall of 1971.

428

first time enrollment of full-time graduate students in science and
engineering increased by just 5%. Enrollment in science was up by 6%
or so and engineering enrollment was unchanged. Total graduate first-
year, full-time enrollment slackened off most rapidly in science and
engineering in private institutions. The general public disillusionment
with science and engineering and decreases in private and public
support for graduate students contributed to this change.

While these negative pressures will probably continue, there is one
powerful counter force— a continuing increase in the number of
bachelor’s degrees, including degrees in science and engineering. In
1965, five years before the 29,000 total doctorates of 1970 (17,300 of
whom were scientists and engineers), 530,000 students received
bachelor's degrees. In 1975, five years before the doctorate group of
1980, there will be about 960,000 bachelor's degrees. If the same
proportion of the 1975 bachelor-degree holders proceed to a Ph.D.
degree, as was true of their 1965 predecessors, about 52,000 Ph.D.
degrees will be granted in all fields (about 32,000 of whom would be
scientists and engineers).

A reasonable estimate of the total available supply of scientists and
engineers in 1980 (after taking into account not only production, but
death, retirement, emigration, and immigration) would be in the range
of 315,000 to 340,000, with about 325,000 as a midpoint. These are the
assumptions of the National Science Foundation and they are close to
the estimates of others who forecast relatively low numbers of scien-
tists and engineers with Ph.D. degrees.

Supply and demand

If one accepts the assumption that the existing pool of about 160,000
Ph.D.s in science and engineering will grow to about 325,000 or so by
1980, what is the prospect that the increased number — more than
double the 1969 level— can be productively utilized? Assumptions have
to be made to answer questions like this: At what rate will the total
economy expand? What proportion of the gross national product will
go into research and development? At what rates will enrollment in
the sciences and engineering increase at undergraduate and graduate
levels? What would be the effect of a really large-scale attack on prob-
lems of the environment? What will be the ratio of professors to stu-
dents, and what proportion of faculty will have a Ph.D.? To what extent
will Ph.D.s in science and engineering be absorbed in nonacademic,
non-research and development jobs that will use their training reason-
ably well? What will be the long-run effects of the youth rebellion on
advanced training in science?

Such a simple list of the questions that have to be answered in fore-
casting the demand for Ph.D.s in science and engineering suffices to
show the impossibility of making firm and precise forecasts. Neverthe-
less, there is a fairly wide consensus on the dimensions of future de-
mand for Ph.D.s, and the National Science Foundation projections
provide a reasonable set of figures. They indicate that there will be

429

suitable jobs for 270,000 to 300,000 scientists and engineers in 1SS0.
Employment substantially above these Ie\'els would be generated only
by implausible rates ot increase in the gross national product ce\'Otsd
to research, in undergraduate and graduate enrollment, in the propor-
tion of all college and university' faculty with a Ph.D., and in the absorp-
tion of Ph.D.s in nontraditional areas requiring high le’.'els of academic
preparation.

The total supply of doctorates in 1950 has been predicted to be
325,000. A likely figure for utilization of doctorates in that year would
be 285,000. In this circumstance, there would be a gap of 40,000 be-
tween supply and utilization. These Ph.D.s would be for the most part
underemployed. These figures are not precise but represent calcula-
tions based on plausible but not necessarily precise assumptiorrs. In
addition, the figures are for el! scientists and engineers end do not
indicate differences among fields. Vi'ith these qualifications, the impli-
cations of the forecast are clear.

In 1971 most forecasts v/ere less optimistic than they were in earlier
years. For example, the National Science Foundation said of its 1971
projections that this "represents a greater likelihood of a future over-
supply than the projections de\'eloped two years ago/' Allan Cartter,
v.'ho first pointedoul that we should be vrorried about oversupply rather
than shortages in 1950, has noted that the time of trouble has ant.'ed
sooner than he had originally thought As of nov.', the possibility of
oversupply should be viev/ed as a matter of continuing concern and
not as a passing aberration.

The rough overall balance of supply and demand disguises some
probable imbalance in specific fields. It appears that there may be
substantially more engineering Ph.D.s than v/il! find suitable work,
although virtually all of them v.'ill have jobs. This may also be the case in
mathematics and the social sciences, but the imbalance may not be
as severe as in the case of engineering. The outlook is for reasonable
balance in the physical sciences.

If there is not to be substantial unemployment among scientists and
engineers, many more than the current lOSi — as many as 15 or 207 o
— will have to be employed in nonacademic, non-r^earch and de-
velopment employment. This includes such fields as management
sales, government administration, consultation, and teaching in junior
colleges and high schools. Here one faces the question v.'hethersuc'n
employment proves that there has been "overproduction." I thin'i not
for the reason that these are v.-orthy and producth'e careers. .Moreover,
a consistent line of development in this country, and one which has
contributed greatly to social mobility and economic crovrih, has been
a steady elevation of the level of education of those in given lines of
work. However, this line of argument cannot be pushed too far be-
cause at an extreme it offe.'S a way of dismissing any le'.'e! of cn'er-
production. That is. those not absorbed in academic work in four-year
colleges and universities and in nonacademic research and develop-
ment are simply assumed to be productively employed in other caie-

aso

gories. If the National Science Foundation projections have a weakness
it is in the assumption that from 40,000 to 55,000 engineering and
science doctorates in the other category would all be suitably employed.

The overall picture of total employment also disguises the situation
that will be faced by the new Ph.D.s. A certain and striking decrease in
the proportion of new Ph.D.s who will be employed in universities and
colleges is one of the most prominent prospects of the 1970s. This
decline will come about as the rate of increase in undergraduate enroll-
ment decreases over the decade and as enrollment actually declines
in the 1980s. The proportion of new Ph.D.s in science and engineering
who will be employed as faculty in colleges and universities will drop
(from 60% during the 1960s) to about 10 to 25% in the last half of the
1970s. This decline will come about even if substantially more Ph.D.s
are employed in junior colleges and even if the proportion of faculty
with Ph.D.s in all academic institutions increases substantially. On the
other hand, the proportion of new Ph.D.s during the 1970s who will
be in nonacademic, non-research and development jobs will be 20 to
25%, and the proportion will rise throughout the decade.

Because of the changing job market, a substantial proportion of the
Ph.D.s in science and engineering will have to be trained more broadly
than is now the case, and with less emphasis on training for academic
research. The change in the labor market will generate a debate over
the nature of advanced training that will continue for years. If history
offers a guide, the necessary adjustments will be made long after the
need for them becomes evident.

The bargaining power of Ph.D.s in science and engineering will be
less, and the power of employers— academic and nonacademic— will
be greater in the present decade than it was during the preceding two
decades. Not only jobs but promotions and raises will be harder to
come by. To some degree, those with jobs will be in competition with
those coming into the market. The average age of faculties will in
crease, and this will raise acutely the problem of maintaining youthful
vigor in research and teaching in fields that will continue to change
rapidly. Pressure will be exerted to reduce retirement ages and to
modify tenure policies, with resulting financial problems for individuals
and institutions.

Overproduction or underproduction?

Given the fact that supply and demand will rarely be in ideal balance,
and that forecasts are virtually certain to be wrong in some respects,
what general course of action with respect to training of scientists
and engineers is appropriate? Should output be restricted on the

ground that supply will apparently outrun demand.

The costs to the nation that would be generated by overproduction
Of scientists and engineers would be far less than those that would be
generated by underproduction. The costs of overproduction are of two
kinds. First, there are the economic costs of educating those who are
"surplus” to the needs of the economy-defining surplus as the num-

431

ber who are not employed in jobs making reasonably full use of their
advanced training. Second, there are the intangible costs to individuals
as well as to society when a group of highly intelligent and highly
trained people are unable to use their skills fully. However, the costs of
overproduction, both to society and the individual, are reduced to a
substantial degree by the fact that highly-trained scientists and en-
gineers can perform capably and usefully in many capacities other than
those for which they have been specifically trained.

On the other hand, the costs of having too few highly-trained scien-
tists and engineers are extremely high. The inability to staff important
segments of the economy with enough highly-trained people will tend
to depress the total output of goods and services, retard advances in
productivity, decrease the adaptability of the economic system, stifle
innovation, and raise prices.

These considerations suggest that when the future is murky, as it
generally is, the wisest course is not to take steps designed to achieve
a fine balance between current output and anticipated demand, but
rather to sustain output at levels somewhat above those that would be
indicated if future balance were the goal.

The federal government has overreacted to the short-run situation.
From a level of 50,000 graduate students in all fields supported by
federal fellowships in 1968, there has been a decline to 30,000 in 1971,
and a further decline to 22,000 in 1 972 is probable. The cuts in graduate
student support in science and engineering have been proportional
to the total reduction. This abrupt reversal of federal policy toward
support of graduate students threatens to cut the capacity of graduate
schools— particularly the best ones— to turn out the highly-trained
scientists and engineers needed a decade or more in the future.

If there is a principal lesson to be learned concerning the current
changes in the labor market and the responses to them, it is that the
U.S. has not yet learned how to combine planning and free choice in a
way that will give individuals a reasonable chance to follow their in-
terests while ensuring that the needs of society are reasonably well met.

432

Index

A

AAAS: see American Association for the
Advancement of Science
AST (Art and Technology) (teckart
exhibit) 73-350
AAPisee Skylab

Abbe, Cleveland (meteorol.) 72-380
Aborigines
malnutrition 73-141
Abortion 72-273; 71-218, 409
legal questions 71-222
Absolute configuration (chem.) 71 -164
Absolute zero (temperature) 71 -314
Absorption edges 71 -271
Academy of Sciences (China) 73-37
Academy of Sciences (U.S.S.R-) 73-179
ACAST (Advisory Committee on the Ap-
plication of Science and Technol-
ogy) 72-426

Accelerator. Particle: see Particle accel-
erator

Accidents and safety 71 -279
alcoholism 73-277
anti-pollution lav/s 72-257
coal mining 73-249; 71 -201
computer studies 71-172 ’
conversion to metric system 73-153
Soyuz tragedy 73-178
traffic regulation 73-383
V/STOL aircraft 73-330
Acetone 71-377
Acetylcholine 72-285. 302
Acetylcholinesterase 72-302
ACS: see American Chemical Society
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
73-214

Action potential

electrical signals in plants 73-202
Active Site (biol.) 71-243
Active transport (biol.) 72-340
Acupuncture (med.) 73-268
Chinese policies 73-45
psychic phenomena 73-60
surgery il. 73-46

ADA: see American Denial Association
Adamenko, Victor (physic.) 73-81
Adams, Margaret 72-214
Adams. R, McC. (archae.) 71-113
Adams. Roger (chem.) 73-307
Additives 73-243
Adenine (DMA) 72-307
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 73-293
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
73-293

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 73-293.

302; 72-30t
Adrenal glands 71 -175
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
73-214

Index entries to feature and review articles in this and
previous editions of the Bntannica Yearbook of Science
and the Future are set in boldface type, e.g.. Astronomy.
Entries to other subjects are set in lightface type, e.g.,
Radiation. Additional information on any of these subjects
is identified with a subheading and indented under the
entry heading. The numbers following headings and sub-
headings indicate the year (boldface) of the edition and
the page number (lightface) on which the information
appears.

Astronomy 73-184, 72-187, 71-133
Colonizing the Moon 72-12
honors 73-251 . 72-260. 71-205
measuring temperature of center of
sun 71 -370
photography

stars trajectory il 71-367
space probe research 71-129
spectrograph 73-175
topography of Venus 73-223

All entry headings, whether consisting of a single word or
more, are treated for the purpose of alphabetization as
single complete headings and are alphabetized letter by
letter up to the punctuation. The abbreviation "il." indi-
cates an illustration.

Advanced Passenger Tram (APT) (Brit.)
73-334

Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) 73-220:72-225
Advisory Committee on the Application of
Science and Technology (ACAST)
72-426

AEC: see Atomic Energy Commission
Aedes aegypti (mosquito) 73-338;
72-341; 71 -221

AES (Apollo Extension System) 72-18
Aftershock zone (geophysics) 71-180
Agency for International Development.

U.S. (AID) 72-161; 71-404
Aggression and Violence 71-64
behavioral sciences 72-393
biological anthropology 71-145
temporal lobe epilepsy 73-288
Aging 72-78
botany 71-151
Hippocratic Oath 73-409
nutritional research 73-243
Tasaday tribe 73-60
Agriculture 73-160; 72-160; 71-100
Chinese policies 73-44
Colonizing the Moon 72-24
composting 72-362
diet requirements 73-131
earth resources surveys 73-174
Grasslands of the V/orld 72-144
insect control 71-51
origin 71-112

plant-animal interactions 73-200
population growth 71-400
radiocarbon dating 72-166
rice paddies il. 73-42
scientific developments m the UN 72-
426

Tasaday tribe 73-50
Agriculture. U.S. Department of (USDA)
Current Research Information Services

71-103

foods and nutrition 73-241; 72-160.
250

insect pest control 73-160: 71 -53
surplus food 73-134
VEE vaccination program 73-336
A-helic (polypeptide chain structure) 71-
243

AID: see Agency for International
Development, U.S,

Air bag (safety device) 71 -260
Air beams 71-118. il. 117
Air-cushion vehicle 71-280
Airlock module 73-177
Air pollution: see unde' Pollution
Airport 72-331:71-278
architecture and engineering 72-169
India 71-347

ALA-dchydrase (Oelta-ammoIe-.-ulinic
acid dehydrase) 73 -370

Albedo (astron.) 71-131
Albert Einstein Av/ard (physics) 73-256
Albert Lasker Medical Research Awards
73-255

Alcohol 73-275

effects of animal intoxication 72-286
Aldnn. Edv/m E.. Jr. 71-123, 135
Alexander Agassiz Medal (earth sciences)
73-253

Alfalfa 71-57. 110

Alfven. Hannes 73-252. 256; il. 72-265
Algae

evolution 71-153
fossil organisms 72 -204
mosquito control 73-338
water pollution 71-239
Algol (star) 73-188
Alkaloids 71-161
Alligator il. 71-291
ecological interrelationships 73-21
/Vtlomone 71-287
Allotype (immunology) 71-226
Alloys

dislocation theory 72-401
superconductivity 71 -319
a-acetyl-methadol (drug) 73-290
Alpha-lactalbumin 71 -244
Alpha particle 73-316
analysis ot lunar surface 72-179
Alpha waves (brain) 73-78
monitoring ils. 73-79. 80
ALSEP: see Apollo lunar surface experi-
ments package

Altered stales of consciousness (ASCs)
73-77
Aluminum

use on the moon 72-13
•’Alvin" (submarine) 71-258
AMA: see American Medical Association
Amchilka Island. Alaska 73-225
American Academy of Family Practice

72- 274

American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science (AAAS) 72-328
Boston meeting (1959) 71-275
parapsychology 73-77
American Cancer Society 73 -275 ; 72-
289

American Chemical Society (ACS) 72-
199. 245

ACS Award m Pure Chemistry 73-252
lobbying policies 73-326
American Dental Association (ADA)

73- 282:72-227:71-173
American Medical Association (AMA) 71-

221

Council on Drugs report 71 -235
nutrition 73-133
organization changes 73-274
postgraduate education 72-274
Arrerican Physical Societ/ 73-325

American Psychological Association 73-
197:71-275

psychopharmacology 73-328
American Social Health Association 73-
291

American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) 73-326:71-118
American Telephone and Telegraph Co.
(AT & T) 71-166
cryptology 71-357
mobile communications 73-216, 231
American Vacuum Society 72-16
Ames Research Laboratory 71-375
Amine neurotransmitters 72-285
Ammo acids

absolute configuration 71-164
antibody 71-226
botany 72-304
enzymes 72-210
genetics 72-307
high*lysine corn 73-131
lunar rocks 72-230
nutrition 71-197

protein structure 73-297; 72-214; 71-
242

protein synthesis 72-218
relation to replication 71-247
5-aminO'3-chloropyrazinecar.

boxaldehyde oxime 73-211
Ammonia

Chinese manufacture 73-44
recycling by plants 73-199
solvated clusters 73-207
Amniocentesis 72-70
Amoeba il. 72 -296
Amorphous materials 71-271
AMP (Adenosine monophosphate) 73-
293

Amphetamine (chem.) 73-272; 71 -223
Amplif.cation (electronics)
undersea cables 71-165
Amplitude analysis

nuclear particles 73-314
AMTRAK (National Railroad Passenger
Corporation) 73-333; 72-330
Anatomy 71-24
Anderson, D. L (geol ) 71-189
Andesite magma 71-38
Anemia 73-297; 71-243
Anesthesia
acupuncture 73-253
Angelctti. R. H.

NGF 73-300

Ang-na pectoris (path ) 73-257
Anik (satel'ite) 73-172
Animal behavior
aggression and violence 71-63
instmet and learning 72-393
Animals; see Zoclogy
Anoma’ous water (Pof/wate'; Supe'*
wateO 72-216:71-164

433

Index Anorthosite/ Blood

Anorthosile
moon's interior 73-185
Ant 71-287
Antarctica 71-178
Antennas (electronics) 71-187
Anthropology 73-193
The Anthropologist Goes to the City

71-413

hominoid evolution 71-291
Margaret Mead: The Anthropologist as
Social Reformer 72-102
Tasaday tribe 73-50
Antibiotics
animal feed 72-297
chemical synthesis 72-218
veterinary medicine 72-337; 71-285
Antibody 71-378
dental research 71-173
drug addiction research 73-290: 72-
287

molecular structure 71-226. ils. 227.

228

pregnancy 72-73
Antigen 71 -378
Australia antigen
serum hepatitis 72-275, il. 295
cancer cell 73-91
immunoglobulin structure 73-299
malignant disease 72-291
Antioxidant
gerontology 72-86
plastics 72-209
Anti-proton 73-397
Aphid 73-338
Aphid lion (larva) 73-161
Aphrodisiacs 71-219
Apollo (spacecraft) 73-175; 72-176; 71-

123

communications 71-165
Genesis bean il. 73-185
lunar experiments 73-184
lunar landings 73-222; 72-230; 71 -
135

Apollo Applications Program: see Skylab
Apollo Extension System (AES) 72-18
Apollo lunar surface experiments pack-
age (ALSEP) 73-175; 72-177; 71 -

124

Apple 71-108
Apple worm il. 71-53
Applications TechnologfSatellites (ATS)
73-171: 72-173
antenna 11 73-174
atmospheric sciences 72-197
detecting and tracking hurricanes 72-
124

television broadcasting in India 71-120
Applied Science Center for Archaeology
(MASCA) 71-391

APT (Advanced Passenger Train) (Brit.)
73-334

APT stations: see Automatic Picture
Transmission stations
Aquiculture: see Manculture
Aragonite

mining from ocean il. 73-261
Arboviruses 7l -238
Arc de Tnomphe tunnel 71 -283
Archaeology 73-163:72-163; 71-111
Chinese history ils. 73-33
Dating the Past 71-386
hominoid evolution 71-291
ethnobotany 71-150
La Brea tar pits 72-52
medreme and art 71-19. ifs 16. 20. 21
Tasaday tribe 73-52
urbanism 71-415

Architecture and Building Engineering
73-165; 72-167; 71-115
archaeology 71-114
earthquavo areas 73-227; 72-40
Ful'er. Buckminster 71 -342
structure 73-211

Argonn« Kat-ona! Laboratory 71 -355

Argonne Universities Association 71-370

Armed, Ho 73-29S

Armand. Louis (engm J 73-303

Afirstfong CUts 73-170

Armstrong. A 71-123.135

A-p. H C 72-193

APPA: see Ad^ancr'd Pnearch Pro,*'cts
Agr-^cy

A-e- ' tr • jC'idr* 71-tC4

An 73-34':; 72 -63
a-t^•'■po'c'7^ 73-195

Mri c an-s An . te

cr* CJ’ •. C'l -'r* •• 73-3<r

Art and Technology (A & T) (teckart
exhibit) 73-350

Arteriosclerosis 73-267; 71 -236
Artery (physiol.) 71-81
Arthur L. Day Prize (earth sciences)
73-253

Artificial intelligence (computer
technology) 73-100
Artificial organs
heart; see under Heart
larynx 71-221
lung 72-278

Artmian, Boghus L. 71-225
Artzimovich, Lev 72-392
Asama. volcano. Japan 71-46
Asbestos 72-277

ASCE; see American Society of Civil
Engineers

ASCs (Altered states of consciousness)
73-77

Asexual reproduction 71-288
Ash (pyroclastic) 71-36
Asimov, Isaac 73-103
Asphalt

La Brea tar pits 72-58
Associated Universities, Inc. 71-369
Association for Computing Machinery

72- 227

Asthma 71-233
Astrology 73-70

Astronautics and Space Exploration

73- 171: 72-172; 71-120
Apollo 14 72-230

Atomic Energy Commission 71-365
Colonizing the Moon 72-12
communications 71 -165
computers 71 -172
electronics 71-183
honors 73-251 ; 72-259; 71 -205
lunar interior 73-184
satellites: see Satellites and space
probes

scientific development in the UN 72-
431

U.S.-Soviet cooperation 73-222
Astronomy 73-184; 72-187; 71 -133
Colonizing the Moon 72-12
honors 73-251; 72-260; 71-205
measuring temperature of center of
sun 71-370
photography

stars' trajectory jl. 71-367
space probe research 71 -129
spectrograph 73-175
topography of Venus 73-223
Astrophysics 73-188
Aswan High Dam (United Arab Republic)
72-236

AT & T: see American Telephone and
Telegraph Co.

Atlantis 71-306

Atmospheres, P/anetary 71-129. 136
Atmospheric Sciences 73-189; 72-194;

71- 140

carbon dioxide 72-329
Challenging the Restless Atmosphere

72- 379

Grasslands of the World 72-145
hydrological research 73-230; 72-236
lunar atmosphere 72-14, 179
P.1artian atmosphere 73-180. 1B7
oceanography 71 -256
pollution and respiratory disease

73- 235

satellites 73-173. 178, 264; 72-174;

71- 121
weather

Killer Storms 72-116
scientific developments in the UN

72- 429

Atom

chemical dynamics 71-156
Chemical synthesis 73-210; 72-217
electron microscope 71-266
nuclear fusion 73-112
plastics 72-399

Promejheans of the Atom 7t -362
reactions of three-atom systems

73- 207

scientific developments in the UN
72-430

structure 73-211. 391
see a/jo f.'uc'ear physics
Aio"! c enp'gy; see N'jc'ear energy
Atomic Energy Commit* on (AEC) (U.S 1

71-3G2

fur* aod poAPf 73-245: 72-133
*und 0-5 o* n.a!.onaI accelerator 73-392

licensing nuclear plants 73-239
Nevada Test Site (NTS) 71-180
peaceful uses of atomic energy 71-202
ATP: see Adenosine-triphosphate
Atna (Auricles) (heart) 71-80
ATS: see Applications Technology
Satellites

Attractanls 72-395; 71-59, 153, 159
pest control 73-160; 72-215, 341
plant-animal interactions 73-200
Auricles (Atria) (heart) 71 -80
Aurignacian culture 72-201
Australia antigen 72-275. il. 295
Australopilhecine 73-163; 71-397
Autistic behavior
animal experimentation 73-289
Autogenic training (Biofeedback) 73-78
Autograft

tooth transplant il. 72-228
Automatic Picture Transmission (APT)
stations

satellites 73-173; 72-175; 71-122
Automation: see Computers
Automobile: see Motor vehicles
Automorphism (math.) 72-270
Avian leukosis 73-160
Aviation 73-329; 72-331; 71-278
architecture and engineering 72-169
Killer Storms 72-124
meteorological services 72-379
Awards and prizes: see Honors
"Away with All Pests" (Horn) 73-46
Axelrod, Julius il. (pharmacologist)

73-288; 72-262

Axtal (z-pinch) technique 73-123
Ayllon, R. (psych.) 71-149
Azrin. N. (psych.) 71-149

B

Babakin, Georgi N. (space expert)
73-308

Baboons 72-394
Bacillus thuringiensis 73-161
Bacteria
botany 73-200
cell-wail components 71-245
colonies 71-241
dental caries 71-174
methyl mercury 73-364
oil-eating il. 73-234
periodontaf disease 72-229
protein synthesis 73-294
sewage pollution 73-20
Bacteriology: see Microbiology
Bacteriophage (virus) 73-305
gene isolation 71 - 240
Bailie. Richard C, (chem. engin.) 73-237
Baker, Alan (math.) 71-216
Balloon 72-379

constructing lunar shelter 72-22
studies of galaxies 71-132
Baltimore. David 73-304; 72-300, 306
Banton. Michael (antbro.) 71-420
Barbados Oceanographic and Meteoro-
logical Experiment (BOMEX)

71- 141, 256
Barbiturates 71-223

child abuse il. 72-284
Barges 71-281
Barth. Frednk 72-200
Basalt 71-180
lunar rocks 72-331; 71-176
moon’s interior 73-185
volcano 71 -38

Bascom. V/. R. (anthro.) 71-419
Basov. Nikolai G.

Nobel prizes 73-422
Bastnasite 73-316
Batteries 71-168

Bavarian Sports Physicians Conference
(Munich) 71-219
BCG (vaccine) 73-95
BCS theory (superconductivity) 71-269
Beam-lead bonding 71 - 185
Beam particles (physics) 73-313;

72- 313. 320; 71-261
Bean. Alan L. 71-124. 135

ethnobotany 71-151, it. 152
Beberman, Max 72-308
Becker. R. 73-341
Gee (honey comb) 72-333
Beetle 72-338: 71-237. ii. 52
Dutch etm disease 73-161
Behavioral Science* 73- 193; 72- 199;
71-145

Aggression and Violence 71-64
anthropology: see under Anthropology
child abuse 72-281
dental research 73-283; 71-174
A Freedom to Excel 72-393
information dissemination 73-259
Myths. Tales, and Games 71-324
Population Policy; Stemming the
Human Tide 71-400
psychology: see under Psychology
Skinner’s social manipulation theories

73-327 •

test-tube conception 73-408
treatment of alcoholism 73-275
Behavior control
psychotechnology 73-196
Beilby Medal (chem.) 73-252
Bell. Robert 72-317
Bell Laboratories 73-215
Belts (volcanic) 71 -44
Belyayev, Pavel Ivanovich 71-250
Benign tumor
cancer definition 73-94
Benin art style 73-163. il. 163
Bennett. G, Vann 73-300
Bennett’s Comet (19691) 71-137, il. 138
Berenblum, Isaac 71-380, il. 383
Bernal, John Desmond (phys.) 73-303
Bernhard, Carl Gustave 73-416
Beta Scorpii (star) 73-187
Bevatron: see Particle accelerator
Bevirido, Francisco (archae.) 73-165
"Beyond Freedom and Dignity" (Skinner)
73-196. 327
Big bang theory 71-133
Bilharzia (disease) 72-237
Bilirubin 72-70

Biochemistry: see Molecular biology
Biodegradability (microbiology) 71-241
Bioengineering: see Artificial organs
Biofeedback (Autogenic training) 73-78
Biological clocks 73-340
Biological controls
Insects 72-215. 297, 341:71-57
snails il. 73-343
Biology

honors 73-252; 72-260; 71-205
Biomes 72-144

Bionelics Research Laboratories 71-193
Biophysics: see Molecular biology
Birds

behavioral patterns 72-394
dialects 72-339

effect of decontamination 73-261
eggs affected by DDT 72-266
evolution 71-291
La Brea tar pits 72-56
markings and colors 73-340
Newcastle disease 73-336
plant-animal interactions 73-200
poisoned seeds 73-364
research on aggression and violence

71- 69

wildlife 73-13: ‘Is. 73-14-17. 24
Birth control 71-217
operations producing sterility 72-273
pharmacology 71-232
Population Policy: Stemming the
Human Tide 71-400
scientific developments m the UN

72- 428

test-tube conception 73-404
UN experts in India il. 72-432
Bisaha, J. 73-199
Bit (computer technology) 73-219
Bitumen

La Brea tar pit 72-53
Black-body radiation 72-321
Blacklists
HEV/ 71-276

. Black Panther breakfast program il.
71-195

BlamonL J. E- (asfron J 7f- 138
Blasting (engineering) 71-283
Blastocyst: see Embryology
Blegen. Carl W. (archae ) 73-303
Bleomycin 73-89
Blindness

electronic devices 73-220; 72-278;
71-167

less developed countries 73-135
methyl mercury pO'Sonmg 73-3'‘^4
Blocking ant-bod es 73-97
Blood

artificial 71-266
banks 71-224
circulation 71-79; 70-355

computer dra'^mgs ii 71-169

434

Index BLOWS/ Communications

clotting

enzymes 72-210
urokinase il. 72-210
computers
analysis 72-241
dental research 71-174
developing fetus 72-67
hematology 73-297
transfusion
hepatitis 72-296

BLOWS (British Library of Wildlife
Sounds) 71-289
Blue babies (med.) il. 71-84
Blunderbuss (some boom simulator) il.
73-240

Body waves (phys.) 73-227
Boeing 747 (SST) 71-278
Bohm formula 73-121
Bohn, Hinrich L 73-238
Boll weevil 71-61

chemical synthesis of sexual attractant

72- 215. 341:71-159
BOMEX: see Barbados Oceanographic

and Meteorological Experiment
Bonding. Chemical 73-299: 72-401:

71-156

Boric acid 71-48

Borlaug, Norman E. (plant pathologist)

73- 239; 72-162, il. 264
Born, Max 71-250

Bosch. Hieronymous
"Cure of Folly" (paint.) il. 71-28
Boson (W particle) (phys.) 72-315
Botany 73-199; 72-204; 71-150
food origin 72-165; 71-112
Grasslands of the World 72-144
lunar 72-24

nev/ plant research 73-162: 71-108
transpiration 72-303
Bound (Limit) (math.) 71-216
Bowers. Raymond (physicist) 72-330
Boyd-Orr. Lord John 72-308
Bradshaw. R. A. 73-300
Bragg, Sir (William) Lawrence 73-308
Braidwood. RobertJ. (archae.) 71-112
Brain

computer control 73-222
criteria of death 73-281
cryosurgery 71-313

damage from hexacWorophene 73-294
drug addiction 72-285
malnutrition 71-196
nuclear diagnosis 71-231
steep and dreams 73-75
training of stroke victims 73-290
zoological studies 73-339; 72-343
Breccia (geol.) 71-135. 176
Breeder reactor 72-139: 71-369
fuel and pov/er 73-246; 72-259
new developments il. 71-368
production of atomic fuel 71-202
Breslow method (chem.) 71-161
Bridges 71-281
Bnstlecone pine

tree-ring dating 73-166; il. 71-391
British Library of Wildlife Sounds
(BLOWS) 71-289
Bronze Age 71-113. 386
Brookhaven National Laboratory 73-392;

71-365

dysprosium-156 73-319
nuclear medicine 71-231
Brownouts (power shortages) 72-130
Brucellosis 73-337; 71-266
Brueghel, Pieter (the elder)
painting il, 71-27

B-structure (Pleated sheet) (polypeptide
chain) 71-243

Bubble chamber (phys.) 73-315, 396.

422. ils. 395-96

Budget. Federal 73-319: 72-323; 71-271
Budyko, M. 1 . 73-191
Building codes
earthquake areas 72-40
Bunker. John P. 71-238
Buoys (ocean) 71 -258
Burbidge. G. 72-193
Bureau ot Mines (U.S.) 72-257. 362
Bureau of Solid Waste Management

72-360

Burkitt, Denis P. 73-140
Burnham, Jack il. 73-354
Burrows, T. (archae.) 71-115
Butcher. James W. 72-341
ButenandL Adolf 72-391
Butterfly and moth 73-200; 71-2S8
pest control 73-338
Buu Hoi. Pnnee (phys) 73-303

C

Cables (submarine) 72-221
new installations 73-218
Cadmium 73-371
Calcium

Recommended Dietary Allowances

73-135

stability 73-316
Calculator 71-185
Calculus

tooth decay 72-229
Calendar

Egyptian 71-390
Olmec 73-165

Calhoun, John (psych.) il. 73-237
Calico Mountains, California
archaeological excavations 72-166;
71-112

Californium 71-365
Ca/len. E. O. (bot) 71-151
Callaway. E. 73-290
Camera 73-311; 72-310: 71-260
honors 73-257
lunar missions 72-180
Martian surface 72- 186
stroboscopic 73-396
video conferencing 73-233
Campbell, Bernard 72-342
Cancer 73-85
cadmium 73-372
chemical solution 72-289
effects of SST 72-330
environmental factors 73-235
Hippocratic Oath 73-409
inheritance theory 71-239
membrane research 73-302
meson beams treatment 72-321
oral 73-283; 72-230; 71-175
research 73-274, 307. 323; 72-274.

289. 294; 71-380
RNA tumor viruses 72-300
use of Con A 72-340
vaccine 73-160
viruses 73-295
Zen macrobiotics 73-139
Canine hemorrhagic fever (Tracker dog
disease) 71-285

Cannikin (underground nuclear test)
73-225

Canning. Aseptic 72-251
Capillary (anat.) 73-297
Carbaryl (Sevin) (chem.) 73-239
Carbohydrates 71-156
Carbon

absence of molecules in lunar matenat
71-135

lunar rocks 72-230
photosynthesis 72-205
structure 71-161
Carbon dioxide
atmospheric pollution 72-329
chemical lasers 71-155. 173
effect on plants 71-108
Martian atmosphere 73-187
photosynthesis 73-201
Carbon-14

dating; see Dating (archae.)
ecology 72-341
Carbonium ions 71-161
Carbon monoxide
automobiles

federal emissions standards 73-236
Interstellar space 72-188; 71-138
oceans as source 73-260; 71-258
waste disposal 71-155
Carbon trioxide 71-163
Carboxypeptidase 71-243
Carcinogens 73-87
cancer definition 73-94
Carcinoma

cancer definition 73-94
Cardiac monitoring 72-278
Cargo

lunar exploration 72-31
shipping 71-281
Canes. Dental

research 73-282; 72-228: 71-173
Tasaday tribe 73-62
Carnap. Rudolt 72-308
Carotene 71-110
Carlan. Elie 73-266
Cartilage 71-290
Cartter. Allan 73-430
CAS (Collision-avoidance system) 71-260
Casal, J.-M. (archae.) 71-114

Cassette

photography 73-31 1
Cassidy. W. A. (astron.) 71-138
Cassiopeia A 72-192
Caster. William O. 73-137
Castration 71-219
Cat 72-338
loxoptasmosis 73-337
Cataloging in Publication 73-259
Catatonia 72-203
Caterpillar (zool.) 73-342
Catharsis, doctrine of 71 -74
Catheter

magnetic lips il. 71 -379
Cathode-ray tube 71-186
Cayce. Edgar (psychic) 73-79
Cecropia 72-216

Cell (biol.) 73-297; 72-298; 71-245
adenosine triphosphate 73-293
antigen-antibody system 71-379
cancer 73-90; 72-289
enzyme 72-214
evolution 71-290
gerontology 72-81

immune response 72-275. 339; 71-229
membrane 72-303
plant sciences 72-205
research on vital processes 71-370
test-tube conception 73-401
viruses 72-294. 300
Cell (electronics) 72-222
Cellular therapy 72- 84
Center of Folklore (Kuwait) 71-326
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 71-351
Cephalopods 73-339; 72-339
CEO: see Council on Environmental
Quality

Cerami. Anthony 73 - 297
Ceramic 72-403

thermoluminescent dating 71-394
CERN (European Organization for
Nuclear Research) 72-313
ISR 73-313
Nobel prizes 73-420
proton storage rings 71-262
superconducting magnet 71-320
Cerny. Joseph 72-317
Certification

paramedical personnel 73-285
Cesium-137

effects of radiation on forests 71-372
Chailakhyan, M.K. (bot.) 71-153
Chatco. Lake (Mexico) 71-111
Chandler. Seth Carlo (astron.) 72-46
Chandler Wobble 72-46
Chang. Kwang-chih 72-163
Changeux. J-P. 72-302
Changnon. Stanley 73-192
Channel (communications) 71-120
Chao. Y-Y. 72-267
Chapapote
La Brea. Cahf. 72-53
Chapman. Sydney 71-250
Character analysis 73-68
Chardack, William (physic.) 71-91
Charfes P. Daly Medal 73-254
Charnley. John 71 -222. 237
Chatelperronian culture 72-201
"Chemical Abstracts" (period.) 73-211
"Chemical Technolog/’ (Metcalf)

73-205

Chemistry 73-203; 72-208; 71-154
Chinese policies 73-44
dehydration of insects 73- 342
education 71-181
honors 73-252; 72-267; 71-206
insect control 73-161; 71-53
Materials from the Test Tube 72-396
organic chemistry 71-247
organic foods 73-137
pesticides 73-238
photography 73-313
Chemotherapy: see Drugs
Cheraskin. Emanuel 72-229
Chern. S. S. 73-265
Chess 73-100

Chicago Hospital Council 71 -220
Child abuse 72-281
Chimpanzee 72 - 202
China 73-32
acupuncture 73-268
Chinn. Gary 73 -268
Chlorine gas 73-363
Chloroptasts 72-207
effects of freezing 71 -245
photosynthesis 73 -201
Chlorpromazme 73 -28-S; 72 -203
Choate. Robert B.. Jr. 72-251

Choen. Abner (anthro.) 71-146
Cholera 72-371
Cholesterol (chem.) 73-267
Chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS)
(human hormone) 73-214
Christen, Arden G. 72-230
Chromatography 73-212
blood alcohol detection 73-384
Chromatron tube 71-185
Chromium

nutritional importance 72-251
Recommended Dietary Allowances
73-135

Chromosomes 72-272
genetic basis of malignancy 73-307
patterns of fluorescence 73-343
provirus hypothesis 72-300
replication 72-340
reverse transcription 72-292. 306
Chronic fetal distress 72-71
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)

71-351

Cilia fl. 73-303

Cinder (pyroclastic) 71 -36

Cipher 71 -353. 359

Ciphertext 71 -354

Civil engineering 72-255: 71-115

Clairvoyance 73-68

Claisen rearrangement (chem.) 71-160

Clark. Kenneth B. (psych.) 73-197

Clarkson. T. W. 73-367

Classification (math.) 72-269

Clay

art forgery 72-94
Clean Air Act Amendments (1970)
73-235; 72-194
Climatology 71 -144
computer simufation 73-221
weather satellites 73-173
Clomiphene 71 -219
Cloning 73-328, 402
hybrid cells 73-306
Ciosed'Circuit television
crime detection 73-376
Cloud seeding 73-192; 72-197; 71 -143
increasing rainfall il. 72-196
thunderstorms 72-383
Club of Rome 73-326
Coal 73-248; 72-256; 71 -198
The Energy Crisis 72-131
gasification 73-204
mercury pollution 73-363
Coast protection 73-260
Cobalt

medical uses 71-371
nutritional importance 72-251
Cobyric acid 73-209
Cockcroft'Walton accelerator 73-391
Code 71 -352

Coding Processes in Human Memory
(conference. Woods Hole. Mass.)
73-199

Codling moth 71-60
Coe. Michael (archae.) 73-165
Cohen. Harold
computer art il, 73-349
Collagen 72-86:71-197
Colliding-beams method 73-206; 72-313
proton storage rings 73-313; 71 -262
Collins. Michael 71-123, 135
Collision-avoidance system (CAS)

71- 280

Coloration. Biofogical
birds 73-340
Comet il. 72 -193; 71 -136
OAO observation 71-131
"Coming of Age in Samoa" (f.lead)

72- 105

Command module 73-175; 72-177
Commission on Population Growth and
the American Future 73-234
Commonwealth Edison Co. (Chicago, 111.)
73 - 250

Communicable disease
veterinary medicine 72-337
Communications 73-214; 72-220;
71-165

computers 72-225
encounter groups 72-413
information sciences 71 -21 1
lunar relay unit 72-779
public education on a'coholism

73- 278

satellites 73-171. 231; 72-172, 322;
71-120

se'/ere weather warnings 72-120
Communications Satellite Corporat-on;
see Comsat

435

Index Community/ Dutch

Community health aides 73-286
Commumty planning; see under
Urbanization
Compost (agri.) 72-362
Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism Prevention. Treatment
and Rehabilitation Act (1970)
73-276

Comprehensive Health Manpov/er
Training Act 73-286
Computers 73-218; 72-223; 71-168
aid to the blind 72-278
archaeology 71-115
art games ils 73-349, 358
atmospheric sciences 73-191
bird migration 72-394
building engineering 71-116
cancer detection il. 73-91
chemical dynamics 71-157
chemical synthesis 71-159
communications 71-168
crime detection 73-383
cryptology 71-359
electronics 72-241

evaluation of world problems 73-326
experimental embryology 73-341
information retrieval
crime detection 73-381
information sciences 71-211
microorganism identification 71-175
Monte Carlo simulation technique
73-168

musical synthesis il. 72-242
organic synthesis 71-247
post-machine art 73-348
Programmed Brain Stimulator il.

73-273

programming 73-98
semiconductors 71-184
shared-user technique 73-231
solid-state physics 71-270
speech synthesis 72-222
study of subatomic particles 71 -366
transportation 73-333
UNISIST 73-259
veterinary medicine 71 -286
Comsat (Communications Satellite
Corporation) 73-171 ; 72-172;

71- 120

telephone-channel satellites 73-217
Con A

cancer 72-340

Concorde (Anglo-Fr, SST) 73-330:

72- 331

Configuration (chem.) 72-214; 71-164
Conformation (chem.) 72-214; 7i -157
Conrad. Charles. Jr. 71 -124, 1 36
Conservation 73-12:71-188
Alaska pipelines 72-246
animal tracking by satellite 71 -123
fuel and power 72-131
Grasslands of the World 72-144
integrated control of mites 73 - 342
methyl mercury poisoning 73-364
Tasaday tribe 73-61
veterinary medicine 72-336
see efso Environmental sciences
Contact. Law of
magic 71-328
Contagious magic 71 -328
Containerization 73-333; 71 -281
Ven-a-pac railway car il. 73-334
Contamination; see Pollution
Continental dnft 73 - 223; 72-232: 71 -44
177

carthquaVes 72-45
laser reflector 71-124
oceanography 73-262
Paleozoic insects 71 -29^3
separation of Europe and Asia 71 -258
Continental shelf 73-247
Contraceptives

P'll. the 71-217, 403
proprrylactiC rc'c 73-233
see e>to Birth control
Contro'>^ behavio^

SV'nnr*r's eiperi—icnfs i‘s. 73 -322 323
Cooley. Dr^nton (surg^n) 7i -222
Ccp?e»

cap- j'n-cortr'^: 73-372

73-IIB

rut', t.pn 72-251:71-197

Q ^

73-135

Cc'j’ fe<'*71-1?7.

Cn'tx't. C'r5h73-342
O'p ••'uctj'p f*i’ch)7l-1ic
Cc-ey. C j 72-217

Corn

earworm control 73 -342
hybrids 73-162

photosynthetic efficiency 71-109
Corneal iridescence 73-339
Corona 71 -133
Cosmic rays 71-138. 261
Cosmogony 71 -97
Cosmology 71 -97, 140
Colonizing the Moon 72-12
Cosmos (spacecraft) 72-166
Cotton. Stephen 72-244
Cotton 73-161:71 -61
Cottrell Award (earth sciences) 73-254
Council on Environmental Ouatity(CEQ)
72-246; 71-144, 190
Counterpulsion 72-280
Crab Nebula 71 -132. il 131
Crater (geol.) 73-175; 72-13
Mars 73-186. 223; 71-129
meteorites 72-230
Creation 72-342

Creation Research Society 72-342
Cremer. Charles C. 73-256
Crespi. Giovanni Battista
painting il. 71 -29
Crewe. Albert V. (phys.) 71 -266
Crick, Francis 72-300
Crime 73-374
art forgery 72-88
medicine 71 -219
NCIC 73-259

CRIS (Current Research Information
Service) 71-108

Cross-Florida Barge Canal 72-246
Cross-links 72-86
Crown-rust disease 71-109
Cryogenics (Low-temperature research;
Supercold) 71 -245. 313
developmental zoology 73-340
medical research 73-280
motor vehicles 72 -332
spectroscopy 71 -161
superconductivity 72-320; 71 -269
Cryostat (low-temperature instrument)
il. 72-19

Cryptanalysis 71 -353
Cryptography 71 -353
Cryptology 71 -351
Crystallography
commercial polymer 72-402
Fab Iragment 73-299
immunoglobulin structure if. 73-300
lattice structure
superconductivity 71 -269
research with nuclear reactors 71 -372
surface elastic waves 71-184
tobacco leaf protein if. 73-300
X-ray diffraction
protein structure 71 -243
Crystal thermography it. 73-90
C-type virus
cancer definition 73-94
Cuatrecasas. Pedro 73-299
Cueva Morm (cave. Spain) 72-200
Cultural Revolution 73-38
Culture 72-104
experimentation 73-197
Myths. Tales, and Games 71 -334
Tasaday tribe 73-50
"Culture and Commitment" (Mead)
71-147

Curie. Mane it. 73-422
Current (electrical) 71 -319
Current Research Information Service
(CRIS) 71 -108

Currents (ocean) 72 -268; 71 -256
Curriculum 72-233; 71 -183
Curtis. G. H. (archae.)71-396
Custom and Politics in Urban Africa"
(Choen)71-146
Cyanale (chem.) 73-299
Cyanosis (ned.) 7i -86
Cybernetics: see Computers
Cybernetic Sere'idipity (teckart exhibit)
73 - 348

Cycads (bot)71-178
Cycla'natM 73-137; 71-225
Cyclic AMP 73-302
ca'icer 73-91
Cyc‘o‘'exa'r.ide 72-207
Cyc!ohe»a''rs (chc'n ) 71 -162
Cyc'O'ios 72-120. 196
Cycictfcn; see Pa't>c5e acco'eratof
Cynodcm 72 - 342

(/'hry—cs) 71-250
Cyloc’asm (b of) 73-307
Cyios ne 72-307

D

Daddario. Emilio Q. 73-323; 72-324;
71-272

Dafal (Manobo Blit trapper) 73-54
Dams 73-168
Danielson. Edwin 73-191
Data processing: see Computers
Data transmission
communications satellites 72-173;
71-120

Specialized Carrier Decision 73-231
Data-undervoice (DUV)
transmission system 73-215
Dating (archae.) 71-386
art forgery 72-95
Hoabinian culture 72-163
pafeonlology 72-59
rocks 73-225; 72-232
Tasaday tribe 73-52
techniques 73-163
David. Edv/ard E.. Jr. 72-325
Day-shift obstetrics 71-218
DDT 71 -53

biodegradable substitutes 73-205
ecological problems 72-341
effects 71 -295, il. 54
eggshell thinning 73-341
ocean pollution 72-266; 71 -254
persistent pesticides 73-238
phasing out of use 71-192
threat to v/ildlife 73-19
Deafness

methyl mercury poisoning 73-354
Death (biol.) 73-279
artistic portrayals 71 -19
cancer control 73-86
human life span 72-78
mafnulrition 73-134
mercury fumes 73-362
mining fatalities 73-249
Tasaday tribe 73-62
“Death and Rebirth of the Seneca. The”
(Wallace) 71-147
Deaths: see Obituaries
Oe Bakey. Michael 71-222
Decimal arithmetic 73-152
Declaration on Population 71 -405
Declaration on the Human Environment
73-240

Deep-Sea OnJImg Project 73-223;

71-177, 258
Deer 71-288

Defense. U.S. Department of
federal research funds 73 -322;

71 -272

nuclear explosion detection 73-226
Defoliation
Vietnam il. 71-192
Degree, Academic 73-425
de Knjif. Paul Henry 72-308
Delta-aminolevulmic acid dehydrase
(ALA-dehydrase) 73-370
Delta waves (brain) 73-78
Dendrochronology: see Dating (archae.)
Dentistry 72-227; 71-173
an 71-27
medicine 73-282
mercury for fillings 73-363
Deoxyribonucleic acid: see DNA
Depression (in psychiatry) 73-287
Depression (1930) 71-407
DeRobertis. E. 72-285
Oeryagin. Boris V, (chem.) 71-164
Design (arch.) 72-167:71-115
Fuller. Buckminster 71 -343
tubular 73-166
Detergents 72-244, 277
Deuterium 72-25
chemical lasers 71 -155
fusion power 73-111
nuclear energy 71 -374
Dculeron 72-310
Diabetes 72-215
Diagnosis
child abuse 72-281
nuclear diagnos-s 71 -230
Oial-a-Bus service 73-332
Diamonds
Synthes *5 71-154
Diastole (phys'ol ) 71 -8l
Diaz Infante. Juan Jose (arch) 71-117
2. <-d ch’cfophenoxyac»'!»c acid 73-341
Diet 73-128

seea'so Foods a’ld nutrit-on
0<e*hyt5* ipestfci (St'fb''St'o') 73-87
residues m 73 -337

Differential geometry 73-264
Differentiation (celO 71 -249
Diffraction 71 -157
Digital coding 73-215
Digitalis (drug) 71 -83
Dihydroxyphenylalanine: see L-dopa
Dimaxion design (Fulled 71-344
Dimethyl sulfoxide 71 -110
Di-methy!-tryptamine 73-288
Dinoflagellates 72-206
Dinosaurs 73-224; 72-342; 71-291
Diode

light-emitting semiconductors 71-270
Diophantine equations (math.) 71 -214
Dioxin 71 -193

2.3-diphosphoglycerate 71-244
Diphtheria 72 -274; 71 -221
Disasters 72-116. 236
earthquakes 72-35. 233
Disease: see Medicine and under specific
names, eg. Cancer
Dislocation theory 72-399
Dispersion-strengthening 72-405
Diuretics 71 -83
Divination 71-101
Tasaday tribe 73-63
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) 72-305
aging 72-82
botany 72-205

cancer virology 73-93; 72-290
gene isolation 71-240
gene therapy 72 -340
genetic code 71 -246
genetic disease 73-^4
molecular biology 73-302; 72-298. 300
reverse transcription 73-304; 72-306
test-tube conception 73-401
virus particles 73-295
yeast research 72 -292
DNA-ligase 72 -293
gene synthesis 71 -246
DNA-polymerase
replication 71-248
reverse transcription 72 -292
Dobrovolsky, Georgi Timofeyevich
73-170; 72-308
Docking (spacecraft) 73-178
"Doctor’s Quick lnches*Off Diet"
(Stillman) 73-138
"Doctor’s Quick Weight-Loss Diet”
(Stillman) 73-138
Dogs 72-333; 71-149. 285
Dole. Vincent 72-287
Domain (superconductivity) 71 -270
Domains (immunoglobulin structure)
73-299

Domes (arch ) 72-24
Dopa; see L*dopa
Double helix 73 -305
lac operon 71 -240
Douglas. A. E. 71 -391
Dragonfly il. 71-56
Dreams; see Sleep and dreams
"Dreams m Folklore" (Freud and
Oppenheim) 71 -330
Drilling

electron beams 71-187
lunar exploration 73-162
01173-247. it. 249
sobterrene il. 73-335
tunneling 71-283
Drugs (Pharmacology) 71-231
cancer 73-68; 72-289
effect on aging 72-87
efficacy report 71-234
FDA regulations 73-270
heart disease 71-83
metric usage 73-147
psychiatry 73-237
psychic research 73-77
psychotropic: see under Psychotrop c
drugs

SDentific developments m tbc UN 72-
432

sea sources 71-233
veterinary rned'cmc 73-337
see also various specific drugs
Dry process (photography) 71 -259
Dubos. Rene (biol ) 73-252; 71 -27S
DuBridge. Lee A 72-325
Duchamp. Marcel

cpticat-preC'S'On machm.e »!. 73-345
Dudnk. St3r^'ey 71-237
Duke. Charles M.. J', 73-175; il 178
DuHr^. A"an VI. 71-352
Dupuy. J'*an

art and technology ii 73-353
Dutch elm C tn.-*'** 73-lCt

436

Index DUV/Fault

OUV (Dala-under voice)
transmission system 73-215
Dwarfism 73-338; 72-208. 219
Dye

dry process photography 71 -259
Dysprosium 73-319

E

Eakins. Thomas
painting il. 71 -32
Ear

evolution 73-340
Earth Day 72-244; 71-183.M91
Earthquake; see under Seismology
Earth Resources Experiment Package
73-263

Earth Resources Technology Satellite
(ERTS) 73-173. 263
archaeology 73-166
hydrological experiments 73-230
Earth Sciences 73-222; 72-230;

71-175

archaeology 73-166
honors 73-253; 72-262; 71 -207
indicator plants 71-151
satellites 73-174

Earth-survey satellites 73-173: 72-174;

71-121

photography 72-312
Eastman Dental Center (Rochester. N.Y.)

71-173

EAT (Experiments in Art and Technology.
Inc.) 73-348

EBR-II (Experimental Breeder Reactor
11) 71-369

Ecdysone (Molting hormone) 71-56. 287
Echo sounder 73-190
Eclipse (solar) 73-189; 71-133. il. 134
Eclogite 71-180
moon's Interior 73-185
E. coli: see Escherichia coli
Ecology 72-355; 71-190

art and technology il. 73-351
conservation of animals 73-18; 72-
336

environmental education 72-238
ERTS 73-174

Grasslands of the World 72-144
human ecology: see under Social
science

insect control 73-161 ; 72-341 ; 71 -
51. 159

marine sciences 73-260
microbiology 73-293
pest control 73-341
pollution-control programs 72-329
scientific developments in the UN

72-429

Tasaday tribe 73-50
use of computers 72-226
see also Environmental sciences
Eddington, Sir Arthur 71-100
Education
alcoholism

professional curricula 73-277
behavioral sciences 72-410
Chinese policies 73-39
demand for doctorates 73-425
honors 73-257
India

ATS-F satellite 73-172
information sciences 71-214
metric usage in textbooks 73-147
nutrition programs 72-252
paramedical personnel 73-285
photography 72-312
super 8 photographic systems 71 -
260

surgery 71-238
television 72-174; 71-121
venereal disease 73-292
Education, Science 72-238: 71-181
federal funds 73-322
humane values 71 -426
Max Planck Society for the Advance-
ment of Science 72-389
Weizmann Institute of Science 71-
376

Edwards. Robert G. 73-401. 328

EEG: see Electroencephalograph

Egyptian year 71 -390
E. Harris Harbison Award lor Gifted
Teaching 73-257
Ehrlich. Paul 72-273; il. 71 -410
Eigen. Manfred (chem.) 72-390

Einstein, Albert 71 -347
Nobel prizes 73-413
EKG: see Electrocardiography
Elam (ancient civilization) 71-114
Elastic collision 73-313
Elastic v/aves (phys.) 71-184
ELDO: see European Launcher Develop-
ment Organization
Electric power 73-249; 72-256
cryogenics 71 -319
The Energy Crisis 72-130
geophysical techniques 72-235
hydro-electric project 73-171
means of production 71 -200
nuclear energy 73-246; 71-370
superconductivity 71-269
Electric shock

experiments v/ith animals 72-204
Electrocardiography (EKG) 72-73. 241
Electroencephalograph (EEG) 72-241
extrasensory perception 73-75
Electromagnet

laser research 73-216
superconductivity 71-320
Electromagnetic energy 72-119
Electromagnetic v/aves 73-338; 71-184
Electron 72-211; 71-156
atomic structure 73-391
bombardment

energy levels 73-206
deep inelastic scattering 73-314
electron beams 72-314; 71-186
fusion power 73-112
magnetic spin 71-317
microbeam probe 72-98
nuclear domain 73-316

superconductivity 71 -269

synchrotron radiation 72-321 ; 71 -132

Electronics 73-231: 72-240:71-183

art and technology 73 -350
automated railroad operations 73-333
communications 71 -167
crime detection 73-376
cryptology 71 -359
industrial research 72-323
photography 73 -1 81 : 72 -310
plastics 72-406
superconductivity 71 -323
Weizmann Institute 71-383
Electronic video recording (EVR) 73-243
Electron microscope
atoms 71-266
microbiology 71 -241
micrograph of lead-nucleated ice
crystal 11.73-189

molecular biology 73-301 ; 71 -244
oral cancer ils. 73-283

SEMandTEM71-183
Electron ring accelerator (ERA) 72-320
Electron spectroscopy lor chemical
analysis (ESCA) 73-2t3
photoelectron spectrometer ” 3^
Electron volt 73-391; 72-187: 71-321
Elementary particles: see Particles.
Elementary

Element 105 (Hahnium) 73-213

Elements, Chemical 73-316. 391.72-316
art forgery 72-98
discovery of 105 71 -371
nucleosynthesis 71 -265
Elizalde. Manuel. Jr. 73-50

Elliptic curves 71 -216

Ellison. William (math.) 71 -216
Embolism

Soviet cosmonauts 72-loZ
Embryology 72-65

cellular differentiation 72-349

experimental 73 -341

test-tube conception 73-401. ils.
404-05. 408

Empire Slate Building (N.Y.) 71-115
Employment

demand for professionals 73-42©

Encounter Groups 72-410

group experience program 71
Endoscope 72-278
ENEP (Expanded Nutrition Education
Program) 72-252
Energetics: see Fuel and power
Energetic-synergetic geometry 71 -341
Energy 73-244:72-253:71-197
beam collision techniques 73-20©
gravitational waves 72-333
non-polluting sources 73-239
nuclear: see under Nuclear energy
solar 72-140

tropical transfers of heat and water
vapor 71 -141

volcano 71 -48
Energy charge 73 -294

under Architecture and
building engineering
civil: see under Civil engineering
Colonizing the Moon 72-22
electronics 72-240
employment situation 73-326. 426
honors 73-258
metric usage 73-147
nuclear: see under Nuclear engineering
technological art 73-346
Enrico Fermi Award (physics) 73-256
Enrico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies

73-397

Enterobactcn 72-251

Entropy 71 -99. 319 ,cda\

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

72-194, 246

consumption of cadmium 73-372
health report 73-234
pollution problems 73-192, 72-
Enwronmental Quality Council: see

Council on Environmental Quality
Environmental Sciences 73 -234;

72-244:71-188

anthropological research 73-195
Buried in AHIuence 72-354
environmental education 72-238
environmental geology 71 -’76
luel and power 72-131. 253.71
Grasslands of the World 72-144
humane values 71 -428
human inlluence on climate 71 -144
hydrological research 72-23
microbiology 71 -239

oceanography 71 -254

pioneer lunar colonists 72-12
pipelines 73-332
pollution: see under Pollution
Pfiofilies for the Future: Human
Freedom and the Ecological
Balance 71 -292

problems concerning SST 73-323;

72-194 .

relation to general science rwearch
and development 71 -271
sociological aspects 71 -M
UN conference 73-170; 72-426
veterinary medicine 72-336
zoology 71 -287
see also Conservation: Ecology
Environmental Science Semces
Administration (ESSA) 71
weather satellites 71-122
Enzyme 72-214

applied chemistry 72-209
cancer research 72 -292. 295
cellular studies 72 - 304
ONA polymerase 72-300

energy production 73-»4

plant-animal interactions 73 zuu

protein molecule 72-302

reverse transcription 73-304; 72-306
structure 73-212; 71 -243

synthesis 72-216
visual excitation studies 73 -304
EPA: see Environmental Protection
Agency

Epilepsy 73-288
Epp. Otto 73 -299
Epstein. Arnold (anthro.) 71-421
Equation (math.) 71-214
Equine infectious anemia (Swamp
fever of horses) 71 -286
ERA (Electron ring accelerator) 72-320
Erhard. Darla 73-139

Erlanger Program (math.) 73-264

Ernest O. Lawrence Memorial Award
(nuclear energy) 73-256
ERTS: see Earth Resources Technology
Satellite

Eruptions, volcanic 71 -42
Erythroblastosis fetalis (Rh disease)
72-70

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 73-29/
Esalen Institute (Big Sur. Calif.)

Instant Intimacy 72-410
ESCA; see Electron spectroscopy for
chemical analysts
Eschenmcser, Albert 73-203
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
cell division 72-303
chromosome replication 71-247
repair of DNA 73-303
research on cancer and organ
transplant 71 -239

RNA molecules 71 -241
transcription ils. 73 -306
ESP (Extrasensory perception) 73-68
ESSA: see Environmental Science
Services Administration
Ester (chem.) 71-160
Estes. V;. K. 73-198
Estradiol (hormone) 72-69
Estriol (hormone) 72-69
Estrogens 72-68

Ethambutol (Ethambutol hydrochloride)
71-224

Ethnobotany 71-150
Ethnography: see Behavioral sciences
Ethnology: see Behavioral sciences
Ethylene (bot.) 72-401
Euclidean (plane) geometry 73-264
Eugenic Protection Law (Japan) 71-223
Eukaryotic cells (Eucaryotic cells) 73-
304; 72 -205: 71-290
Eurasia bridge 71 -282
"Euroliner" (ship) 72-335
European Launcher Development Or-
ganization (ELDO) 72-174; 71 -121
European Organization for Nuclear Re-
search: see CERN
Europium (Chem.) 71-370
Euthanasia 73-280
Eutrophication 71 -239
sewage disposal 72-375
Evans. David (geol.) 71 -179
Everglades Park (Florida) 71-193
Evernden. Jack F. (seismologist) 73-226;
71-396

Evolution 73-194
cultural 71-67
folklore theory 71 -327
technology 71-428
organic

archaeology 73-164
disruptive effects of civilization 73-
12

eucaryotic cells 71-290
molecular genetics 71-250
nev/ symbiosis theory 73-343
plants 71-153

provirus hypothesis 72-300, 307
vertebrate hearing systems 73-340
zoological discovery 72-342
EVR (Electronic video recording) 73-233
Excavation

archaeology 73-163; 72-163
Exciplexes 72-213

Excitation (phys.) 73-316; 72-211. 322;
71-158

electron bombardment 73-206
Exhibitions and fairs
Expo 67 71 -344
Expo 70 71-118. 344
Fuller, Buckminster 71-344, il. 348
photography 72-310
technological art 73-346
Transpo 72 il. 73-332
Exobiology 71 -130

Expanded Nutrition Education Program
(ENEP) 72-252

Experimental Breeder Reactor 11 (EBR-IO
71-369

Experimental R & D Incentives Program

73-322

Experiments in Art and Technology. Inc.
(EAT) 73-348

Explorer (spacecraft) 72-185
Exponent (math.) 71 -215
Extrasensory perception (ESP) 73-68
Eye

medical drawings (1533) il. 71 -25
visual excitation studies 73-301
Eyo. Ekpo 73-163

F

Fab fragment (immunoglobulin structure)
73 - 293

Factor (math.) 71-217
Fairchild. Sherman Mills 72-309
Faith healing 73-63
Fa'Iers, Lloyd (anlhro) 71-145
Family planning; see Birth control
Fantasy (folklore) 71 -330
FAO: see Food and Agriculture Organiza-
t on. UN

Farnsworth. Philo Taylor 72-309
Far Ultraviolet Camera Spectrograph

73-175

Fault (geol ) 72-35: 71 -4^. 160

437

Index Fawley/Haloperidol

Amchitka 73-225
Fawley motor 71 -322
FCC- see Federal Communications Com-
mission

Fc fragment (immunoglobulin structure)
73-298

FDA; see Food and Drug Administration
Fear 71-71

Fear-hate-fear syndrome 71 -72
Federal budget: see Budget. Federal
Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act
72-257

Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) 73-231:71-166
Federal Power Commission (FPC) 73-
203. 248:72-256
Feed 72-337; 71-109
Feldman. Michael 71-379, il. 384
Feline leukemia 71-284
Feller, William 71-251
Fermat equation 71-215
Fernandez. Carlos 73-57
Fertility 72-340; 71 -402
hormones 73-214
multiple births 71-219
Fertilization 73-328, 401, ils. 400, 407-
08

action potential 73-202
Fertilizer

Chinese policies 73-44
nitrification inhibitors 73-161
organic foods 73-137
Fesenkov, Vastliy G. (astron.) 73-309
Fetus 72-65
immunology 72-340
malnutrition 71 -195
Fiberglass 72-170

FID (international Federation for Docu-
mentation) 71-212
Fieve. R. 73-287
Filamentous algae 72-204
Film

aggression and violence 71 -75

cassettes 73-311

medicine

physician-authors 72-277
metal dusting 73-378
Finite group (math ) 72-270
Fire

Grasslands of the World 72-145
high-rise buildings 72-172
lead pollution 73-368
Tasaday tribe 73-59
Fish 71 -291

cadmium poisoning il. 73-371
corneal iridescence 73-339
effect of decontamination 73-261
mercury 73-364; 72-266
study on the maintenance of body
chemistry 72-339
wildlife imports 73-13
world production 71 -257
Fission: see Nuclear energy
"Five Families; Mexican Case Studies in
the Culture of Poverty" (Lewis)

71-418

Fleischer. R L (phys.) 71 -399
Flerov, Georgi N. 73-317; 72-317
Fleure. Herbert John 71-251
Flmn. Alfred Douglas 72-244
Flood 72-116, 236
Flouret, G. 72-217
Flower

insect atlractants 71-153
meaning of colors 73-200
Fluorescence

measuring light pulses of laser 72-
212

Fluoride 73-243:72-228: 71 -174
Rccommonoed Dietary Allowances
73-135

Fluorine 71-155
Fly

b-otogical c'oeks 73-340
control 73-160
t!onr*!y 73-333

Fc'dirvj (po’ypeptide cha-ns) 71 -242
ro'VO'ist.cs7l-324
Fc'io'- a c.nndida (toi! mte) *1. 72 - 341
Fcc-d Agriculture Organization UN
(FAO) 72-312
food hun* ng 73*17
ec r'*? '.c y..

72-424

Food and D'ug Ad- '••stra* on (FDA)

71- 274 234

a"* t ct 15 in r-w-

72- 327:71-2*5

carcinogens 73-87
federal research funds 73-323
hexachlorophene 73 -294
labeling 73-134, 242
mercury 73-364

safety and efficacy of drugs 73 -270
stilbestrol residue 73-337
Foods and Nutrition 73-240; 72-249;

71- 194

animal production and disease contro!

72- 338

biological anthropology 71 -145
dating reference 72-95
dental research 71 -173
drain on wildlife 73-17
ethnobotany 71 -151
Grasslands of the World 72-144
insect pests 71-51
life-span 72-80
methyl mercury crisis 73-364
microbiology 71 -239
Nutrition and the American Diet

73- 128

ocean pollution 72-266
origin of food production 71 -112
preservation of foods 71-372
protein production 72-160
research in animal and ptant science
73-162

scientific developments in the UN

72-427

synthetic carbohydrates 71 -156
Tasaday tribe 73-58
toxic substances 72-245
Food stamps 73-134
Force model (phys.) 71 -263
Forecasting 72-120, 196
volcanic eruption 71 -45
Forestry 71-189

radiation effects on trees 71 -372
Tasaday tribe 73-52
Forgery
art 72-88

Forrester, Jay 73-326
Fortune telling 73-68
Fossil; see under Paleontology
Founders Medal (engin.) 73-257
Fox. Eugene 71 -225
Fox. Robert (anthro.) 73-56
FPC: see Federal Power Commission
Francis. Thomas, Jr. 71 -251
Franklin Medal (physics) 73-256
Frazer. Sir James George 71 -327
Frazier. W. A. 73-300
Freedman. Daniel X. 72-276
Free radicals (chem.) 72 -299
drug addiction 72-207
dry process (photography) 71-260
gerontology 72-86
Freezing: see Cryogenics
Frei, Ephraim 71 -383
Frequency analysis
cryptology 71 -354, il. 352
Frequency-modulated continuous-wave
radar 71 -143

Fresco painting (archae.) 73-164
Freud. Sigmund il. 73-197
folkloristics 71 -330
frustration/aggression hypothesis
71-70

Frisch. Karl von 72-338
Frog

Tasaday tribe 73-61
Fruit fly 73-402; 71 -60
Frustration

aggression and violence 71-70
Fuel and Power 73-244:72-253; 71-197
energy crisis 73-203; 72-130
geothermal energy 72-235
lead poisoning 73-360
nuclear fusion 73-111
nuclear power 72-248:71-374
pollution problems 73-236; 71-169
sources on lunar surface 72-23
Fuji. Ml., volcano. Japan 71 -45
Fujrta. Tetsuya T. 72-117
Fuller. R Buckminster 71 -388
Fungus 71-153
Funke. Gosta 73-412
Fusion: see fiuciear energy

G

Gabor. Oenn.s 73-257. if. 255
GaMctor.** 73 -?34; 71 -244
Ca'actos/— , a (fl if3*<-) 73-294

Galaxies 72-l9l;7l-l30
Maffei 1 and 2 il. 72-188
Gallium-arsenide 71 -185, 271
Gallium phosphide 72-223
diodes 71 -271
Game theory 73-100
Gamma globulin
polypeptide chains il. 71 -227
Gamma rays

analysis of lunar surface 72-179
astronomy 71-132
medical research 71 -372
Garbage disposal: see Waste disposal
Gard. Sven (Nobel prize judge) 73-418
Gardner. Allen 72-202
Gardner. Beatrice 72-202
Gardner, Martin (au.) 73-73
GARP: see Global Atmospheric Research
Program

Garvan Medal (chem.) 73-253
Gas (state of matter) 73-211; 72-188;
71-315

absorption characteristics 73-217
Gas, Natural: see Natural gas
Gasbuggy, Project 71 -367
Gas-turbine engine 71 -280
Gal, Joel R. 71 -380, il. 384
Geertz. Clifford (anthro.) 71-422
Gees, Rudi 73-225
Gel-electrophoresis 72-301
General Problem Solver (GPS) 73-104
Generation gap 71-147
Genes 71 -247
cancer 73-85
DNA 72 -305, 307
isolation of 71-240
lac operon 71 -241
NGF sequence 73-300
sex-linked dwarfing 73-338
synthesis 71 -246
test-tube conception 73-402
Genetic counseling: see Genetics
Genetic engineering 73-294
Genetics 73-304; 72-306; 71 -247
aggression and violence 71 -74
antibody 71 -226
bacterial gene 73-294
cancer cells 73-85; 72-291
grain crop yield 71-109
heredity vs. environment 73-198
Insect control 71-57
medical genetics 72-65
microbiology 71 -239
Nobel prizes 73-422
test-tube conception 73-328; 401
theories of aging 72-81
zoology 72-340
Genome; see DNA
Geobotany 71-151

Geochemistry 73-225: 72-231; 71-176
volcanoes 71 -38
see also Earth sciences
Geochronology: see Dating
Geodesic dome 71 -343, il. 340
Geodesy

geodimeter and geodolite 73-220; 72-
48

satellites 73-173; 72-175
Geodesy and Geophysics, International
Union of 71-181
Geodynamics Project 72-234
Geography

Colonizing the Moon 72-12
see a/so Earth sciences
Geological Society of America 71 -160
Geological Survey, U.S.
cadmium content of water 73-372
National Center for Earthquake
Research 73 -228: 71-179
volcanoes 71 -40
Geology 73-222; 72-230: 71-175
earthquakes 72-35
La Brea tar pits 72-58
moon 73-176; 72-12
underground explosions 73-227
sec a'so Earth sciences; Volcanology
Geometrical model (phys) 71-263
Geometry 73-264

Buckminster Fuller designs 71 -342
Geophysics 73 -225
earthquakes 72-45
see also Earth sciences
George Gamow Memorial Lectureship
Award (physics) 73-256
Gcctne'm.a1 power 72-140, 235; 71 -45
German-um 7t-271.iL 270
Ge'm.sn r^eai'es (Rjt><-''a) 72 -27a
Ceronto'ogr; see Ag-'vg

Gestalt psychology 72-410. 416
Ghirlandajo
painting il. 71 -24
Gibberelllns 71 -153
Gibbs. J. W. (phys.) 71-158
Gilbreth, Lillian Moller (engin.) 73 -309
Gilruth, Robert R. 73-251
Gillray, James
engraving il, 71 -29
Glaser. Donald A. (phys.) 73-396, 422
Glass 72-403
recycling 73-238
waste disposal 72-364
Global Atmospheric Research Program
(GARP) 72 -386:71-141
Atlantic Tropical Experiment 73-192
scientific development in the UN

72- 430

weather forecasting 72-199
Global Experiment 71-141
Globin (biochem,) 73-297
Globulin

alpha globulin 71 -381
gamma globulin
polypeptide chains if. 71 -227
"Glomar Challenger'* (ship) 73-223;

71- 177, 258
Glycoproteins 71 -244
Gobbi, Adriano 73-319
Goldman. Marvin 73-256
Goldmark, Peter

The New Rural Society 73-233
Goldstein, Dora B, 72-287
Goldwasser, Ned (phys.) 73-397
Gonorrhea 73-272, 290; 72-276
Good, Robert A. 72-275
Gordon, Richard F., Jr. 71-124
Gordon, Roy Gerald 73-211, 252
Gorman. Chester 72-163
GPS (General Problem Solver) 73-104
Granulocyte (blol.) 71 -381
Graphite 71-155
Grasslands 72-142
Gravimeter
lunar studies 72-180
Gravitational waves 72-383; 70-382
Gravity 71 -40
lunar 72-12: 71 -124
Martian variations 73-160
Gray, Ed (phys.) 73-394
Gray, Eden (au.) 73-67
Grazing 72-145

Great Lakes V/ater Quality Agreement

73- 230. 260

Great Leap Forward (China) 73-37
Green. David E. 72 -340
Green, Elmer E. (psych.) 73-79
Greenhouse effect 72-329
Green revolution (agri.) 72-426
Griffin. James (phys.) 73-394
Grimm. Jacob and Wilhelm 71 -326
Gropius. Walter Adolf 71-251. il. 252
Group dynamics 72-416
Group theory (math.) 72-269
Grouse 71 -288

"Growing Up in New Guinea” (Mead)

72- 105

Growlh'fegulating compounds (bot.)

cell colonies 71 -331
Guanine 72-307
Guard cell (bot.) 73-201
Guilbeau. Eric (chem. engin ) 73 -341
Gulf Stream 71 -258
Gulls 71 -289

Gum disease: see Periodontal disease
Gunn. J. E. 72-193
Gurdon. J. B. 73-304
Gwynne. J. 72-299
Gypsy moth it. 71-61
identification of the sex altraclant
structure 72-216

H

Haagen.Smit. Ane J. 73-254
Hadron (phys ) 72-313
Hacberli. Willy 72-318
Hahnium (Element 105) 73-213
Hail 73-191: 72-193; 71-143. il. 144
cloud seed'O-g 72-332
Hasn. FredW. Jr. 71-120
H.Tlegin. Bo'iS C. VV 71 -359
Ha'e Observatories
spectrograms of S-fJus D 73-1E2
Hall, V.'es’n^r 73-274
H.'i’oper'.dcl 73-253

438

Index Hancock/ Ionization

Hancock, Henry
La Brea tar pits 72-53
Handler. Phillip 72-326
Hannerz, Ulf (anthro.) 71 -147
Harbaler. Marilyn 72-326
Hardware (computer technology) 73-106
Hardy, Sir Alister (zool.) 73-82
Harlow. Harry 73-289
Harris, Henry (pathologist)
genetic basis for malignancy 73-307
Harris, Marvin (anthro.) 72-106
Harrison. Newton

art and technology ils. 73-350, 355
HCS (Chorionic somatomammotropin)

(human hormone) 73-214
Health, Education, and Welfare. U.S.

Department of (HEW) 71 -272
discriminatory treatment of women

72- 328

nutrition survey 73-132
pollution and health report 73-234
Healy, John (geol.) 71 -179
Heart 71-78
artificial 71 -222
counterpulsion 72-280
dietary factors 73-141; 72-251
effect of pollution 73-235
medical research 73-274
nuclear-powered 73-271
svrg^' 71 -23&

transplants; see under Transplants
Heart-lung machine 71 -85
Heat

gasification 73-205
geothermal power 71 -49
lunar interior 73-185: 72-231
Heezen, Bruce (archae.) 71-386
Hegsted. D. Mark 71 -195
Recommended Dietary Allowances

73- 135

Helen B. Warner Prize (astron.) 73-251

Heliostal 71-119

Helium

cryogenics 71 -313, II. 317
interstellar matter 72-188
nuclear fusion 73 -125; 72-318
Heller, Samuel
acupuncture 73-269
Heilman, Ellen (anthro.) 71 -420
Hellstrom, Karl and Ingegerd 73-97
Heme (chem.) 73-297
Hemodialysis il. 73-271
Hemoglobin 73-297; 71 -243
ALA dehydrase 73-370
developing fetus 72-67
Henning. W. 72-307

Henryk Arctowski Medal (astron.) 73-251
Hepatitis 72-275; 71 -220
Australia antigen il. 72-295
blood transfusions 72 -296
Heptachlor (insecticide) 71 -58
Herbert. M. King (geol.) 72-134
Herbicides (weed killers) 73-161, 341;

71-193

Heredity: see Genetics
Heroin (drug)
addiction 72-285
treatment 73-272. 290:72-287
drug traffic 73-380
teenage deaths 72-276
Herpes simplex
DNA virus 73-296
Hester, James J. (archae.) 73-165
Heterogenesis 71-417
Heterograft 71 -89
Heterojunction technique 71 -185
Heuristics 73-100
HEW: see Health, Education, and

Welfare, U. S. Department of
Hewfett. James Munroe (arch.) 71-346
Hexachlorophene
staph infection 73-294
"Hexahedron" (Soleri) il. 72-169
Heyerdahl, Thor
"Ra 11" and crew il. 71 -256
HGH: see Human growth hormone
Hibernation
mitochondria 72-340
Hickel, Walter J. 73-365
High blood pressure; sec Hypertension
High-energy physics: see Physics
Highway Trust Fund 73-236
Hilben. David (math.) 71 -214
Htigard, Ernest (au.) 73-82
Hinman. Alan iJ. 73-293
Hinshaw. Robert 72-200
H.p (anat) 71-237
artificial 71-222

Hippocratic oath
DNA brain cells 73-409
Histones 72-82, 206
Hjellming. R. M. (astron.) 73-188
Hoabinian culture 72-163
Hodgkin. Dorothy M. 72-2T5
Hodgkin's disease 73-88; 72-291
DNA and RNA viruses 73-295
Hoffer. Abram 73-140
Hoffman. Darleane 73-316
Hogarth, William

Bedlam etching il. 73-289
Hog cholera 73-337; 71-286
Holland, James F. 73-88
Holley. Robert W. 73-422; 71-246
Homeopathic magic 71-328
Homing pigeons 73-340
Hominoids71-291
Homocystinuria 71 -196
Homograft 71 -88
Honors 73-251; 72-259; 71-204
Hoover Medal (engin and pub service)
73-258

Hopf, H. 73-265
Hormones 72-215
aggression and violence 71 -69
botany 73-202
cancer 73-91
developing fetus 72-69
Insects 71 -56, 287
molecular study 71 -244
nervous system 71 -232
plant defenses 73-200
stimulant 71 -219
structural chemistry 73-214
synthesis 72-217
prostaglandms 71-160
test-tube conception 73-404
Horn. Joshua 73-46
Horses

Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
73-336:72-337

Horton. John E. 72-229
Hospitals 72-275: 71 -219
Chinese policies 73-46
mental illness 73-289
operating room equipment if, 72-278
Hot Laboratory 71 -372
Hotta. Y. 73-306

House Subcommittee on Science.

Research and Development 72-324
Housing 71-171. 340
low-income families 72-161
lunar 72-22. tl. 27
mass prcducuon 71 -116
prefabncation 72-171
slums ils. 73-193: 71 -405
Tasaday tribe 73-57
Housing and Urban Development. U.S.
Department of (HUD)
modular homes 73-333
Operation Breakthrough 71-116
Hovercraft 71 -281
Howard. Hildegarde 72-56
Howard W. Blakeslee Awards (journalism)
73-257

Howe. George F. 72 -343
Howell. F. Clark 71-111
Hsu. Yu Chih 73-341
Hubacek. Karl (arch.) 72-170
HUD: see Housing and Urban Develop-
ment. U.S. Department of
Huebner, Robert J. 73-92
Huffman. Merrill W. 71-218
Huggins. Charles 73-91
Human growth hormone (HGH) 73-214;

72-218

Hunter. Monica (V/ilson. Monica Hunter)
(anthro.) 71 -416
Hurricanes 72-197: 71-143
Killer Storms 72-116
mathematical modeling 73-191
Hydrocarbons 73 -341 ; 72-298
conversion into methane 73-204
effects on estuaries 73-260
natural gas discovery 73-246
synthetic diamonds 71-154
Hydrogen

atomic structure 73-^1
bomb 72-392
bubble chamber 73-396
comet 71-131. 137
cryogenics 71-313
fuel 73-205

interstellar matter 72-158

lunar exploration 72-26

nuclear fuel: see under Nuclear energy

nuclear fusion 73-111

Hydrology: see Earth sciences: Water
Hydrolysis

energy from ATP 73-293
Hydronautics Israel, Ltd. 71 -383
6-hydroxydopamme 72-203
schizophrenia 73-288
HYGAS process (coal gasification) 73-
205

Hygiene 72-276
Hyman. Hams

art arjd technology tl. 73-353
Hyman. Libbie 71 -251
Hypar (arch.) 72-169
Hypertension (High blood pressure) 71 -
81

cadmium buildup 73-371
Hypnosis 73-68
Hypoglycemia 72-75
Hypothalamus 71-149

I

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agen-
cy) 72-430

lASH (International Association for
Scientific Hydrology) 73-230
IBM (International Business Machines,
Inc.) 73-219; 71-168
IBP: see International Biological Program
1C; see Integrated circuit
Ice

lead levels 73-368
Ice age: see Pleistocene epoch
ICSU; see Internatiortal Council of Scien-
tific Unions

IDOE: see International Decade of Ocean
Exploration

IFYGL; see International f ield Year lor
the Great Lakes
Igneous rock
lunar 71 -135. 176
IHO: see International Hydrological
Decade

Ilmenite (min.) 72-26
Imhoff, Hans Hieronymous 72-90
Immunoglobulins 73-297
model il. 73-299
Immunology 72-83: 71-226
antigens 71-378
dental research 71-173
fetal development 72-340
malignant disease 73 -91:72 -291. 296
scientific developments in the VN
72-427

transplants 72-275

IMP (Interplanetary Monitoring Platform)
72-106

Implants (dental) 71-175
Import control

petroleum industry 72-256; 71-199
fn-camera processing (photography)
72-311:71-260
Incineration 72-361
Indian. American 71-147
alcoholism 73-277
USOA-donaled foods il. 73-241
lndium-113m. 71-231
Indole alkaloids 72-217
Indus Valley civilization 71-114
undeciphered script iL 71 - 1 1 2
Inelastic electron scattering 73-314;

72- 315

Influenza 71-221

Information Science and Technology

73- 258:71-211
atmospheric science 72-381
behavioral science 73-195
demand for doctorates 73-428
see also Computers

Infrared interferometer spectrometer
71-142

Infrared radiation 72-lSO; 71 -139
art forgery 72-92

probing the properties in solids 72-
321

satellite research 73-187; 71-129
spectroscopy 73-300; 71-161
Inhentance; see under Genetics
Inositol hexaphosphale 71-244
Inouye. M. 72-303
Insects 71-287

control; see under Pest cc.nirof
flower color 71 -153
p!ant>animal interactions 73-200
use of man-made chemicals 73-341
see also under individual names

Insemination. Artificial 73-162
Institute of Life Prize (biol.) 73-252
Institute of Medicine 73-274
Institute of Society. Ethics, and the Life
Sciences 73-274

Institutional Grants for Research Man-
agement Improvement 73-322
Instrumentation Laboratory (MIT) 71-
276

Instruments, Medical
acupuncture needles 73-268
Insulin 73 - 297 ; 71-244
ammo acid structure 72-215
diabetes 73-270
Insurance

dental 72-228; 71-175
earthquake 72-40
factors influencing life span 72-80
national health insurance 72-273
organized medicine 73-273
Integrated circuit ((C)
computers 73-219; 71-170
semiconductors 71-185
Intelligence (cryptology) 71-351
Intelsat (International Telecommunica-
tions Satellite Consortium) 73-
231; 72-172; 71-120
telephone-television satellite 73-171.
217; 72-220; 71-165
Intercosmos (spacecraft) 72-186
Interferometry
radio telescopes 72-188
stellar radio sources 73-188
Interferon 73-96
Interior. U.S. Department of the
pipeline construction 73-247; 72-256
wildlife Imports 73-13
Intermediate Science Curriculum Study

72- 239

Internationa) Association for Dental
Research 71-173

International Association for Scientific
Hydrology (lASH) 73-230
International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) 72-430

International Biological Program (IBP)
ecological studies 72-l44;71-l93
nutritional studies 71-194
International Botanical Congress (1969)

71- 150

International Business Machines. Inc.:
see IBM

Internationa) Cancer Congress 72-291
International Council of Scientific Unions
VCSU) 73-258: 71 -214
International Decade of Ocean Explora-
tion (IDOE) 73-224. 263
International Federation for Documenta-
tion (FID) 71-212

International Field Year for the Great
Lakes (IFYGL) 73-230: 72-237
International Geological Congress
Montreal meeting. 1972 73-224
Internationa! Hydrological Decade (IHO)

73- 229:72-235

International Meteorological Organization
Prize 73-254

International System of Units (SI) 73-146
International Telecommunications Satel-
lite Consortium: see Intelsat
International Union of Anthropological
and Ethnological Sciences 73-193
International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry 71-181

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP)

72- 185

Intersecting storage rings (ISR) 73-313:

72- 313

Inter-Society Commission for Heart Dis-
ease Resources 73-142
Infersputnik (Soviet block satellite or-
ganization) 73-173
Interstellar space 72-163
carbon monoxide 71-1^

Intoxication 72-287
(ntrautenne transfusion 72-70
Intravenous feeding 71-237
to (astron) 73-188
Iodine

nutritional importance 72-251
Recommended Dietary Allowance

73- 135

lodine-131 71-229
Ionization

electron bombardment 73-205
mass spectrometry 71 -161
nudea-- fusion process 73-113. 319:
72-318

439

Index Ionosphere/ Lystrosaurus

Pacific Ocean study 73-252
plastics 72-395
protons 71-261

thermonuclear reactions 71-374
transmission of cell membrane 73-201;
72 - 340
Ionosphere
solar energy 72-355
IQ (intelligence quotient)
heredity-environment controversy
73-1SB

Iron

blast furnaces 73-41
cadmium content 73-372
diet requirements 73-132
nutntional deficiency 72-251: 71-194
Iron Age

Phoenician archaeology 72-165
Iron oxide
art forgery 72-93
Irradiation

insect control 71-61
Irrigation

Chinese policies 73-44
Irwin. James B. 73-251: 72-177
Irwin-v/iMiams. Cynthia (archae.) 71-398
Isar 172-392

Ischia (archae. site. It.) 73-164
Isomerism 72-217
fission 71-268

Isomorphism (math ) 73-254; 72-269
Isotopes

artifically produced 71 -264
cryogenics 71 -317
lunar minerals 71 -135
measurement of wavelengths 72-168
natural water supplies 71-380
nuclear domain 73-316
nuclear fusion 73-111
production and application 72-3l6‘

71-364

Structural chemistry 73-213: 71-161
ISR: see Intersecting storage rings
Itai. itai (It hurts, it hurts) (disease) 73-
372

ITOS-D (satellite) 71-142
Ivanhoe. Francis 72-342

J

Jacob. Frangois (geneticist) 73-410;

72- 290

Jaffe. Jerome 72-2B8
James Craig Watson Medal (astron.) 73-
251

James T Grady Award (journalism) 73-
257

Jensen, A R

heredity-environment controversy

73- 199

Jesperson building system 71-117
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Calif.) 73-179
Joint Nuclear Research Institute
(U S.SR) 73-317
Joints. Artificial (bto! )
hip 71 -222

Joliol-Cufte. Frederic and Irene il. 73-
423

Jomon period (Jap )
archaeology 72-163
Joscclyn, Kent
traffic control test 73-333
Jose. Oav.d G. 73-t<l
Journa'ism
honors 73-257

“Journal cl College Science Teach ng-
(Schubert, editor) 72-243
J-ser.es n-ssons (Apo”o flights) 72-178
Jjpi’e' (plane*)
occu'tat ons 73-187
P.one^' to 73-182
Jurattic Pe'»od
canh ic-ences 72-233
Jut,Tn 72-2tC. 71-56 2t3

K

*Cs 'cno-r* 7f-2£7
72-:<i

Ka •4*.

•.S — '.-n 0-n^. Mr

Cs’r* Program

>'71-I7t
73 -n?

(r-r.)7i-2?o

Kangaroo

developing fetus 72-71
Kanmon bridge (Japan) 71-281
Kannel. William B. 73-142
Kaplan. Lawrence (biol.) 71 -151
Kariba. Lake (Zambia) 71-179
Karrer. Paul 72-309
Kass. Leon 73-282
m vitro conception 73-328
Katchalski. Ephraim 71-378, iL 383
Katz, Sir Bernard «I. 72-262
Ketser. R. Lincoln (anthro.) 71-148
Kellogg. William \V. 72-194
Kelud, volcano. Java 71 -48
Kelvin scale 71 -314
Kemp, J. C. 72-190
Kempe, C. Henry 71-221
Kendall. Edward Calvin (chem.) 73-309
Kenyapithecus 71 -397
Kepler Gold Medal (astron.) 73-251
Keyletter71 -357
Keyword 71-355
Khan. Fazlur (arch.-eng.) 73-166
Khorana. Har Gobtnd (geneticist) 73-305.

422; 71 -224, 246
Kidney

cadmium buildup 73-371
hemodialysis 73-276
membrane of dialysis unit il. 71-225
radioactive technetium 71-372
transplants 71 -221 ; 236
vitamin D fortification 73-135
Kilauea, volcano. Hawaii 71-41
Kilogram 73-152
Kilometers 73-152
Kink mode 73-119
Kinship system
Tasaday tribe 73-59
Kirby. Robion (math.) 72-271
Kirlian. Semyon D. and Valentina (inven-
tors) 73-81

Kistiakowsky. George 73-253. 325
Klein. Felix (math.) 73-264
Koeniger. N.

bee research 72-339
Koster site (archae.) 73-165
Koyna (reservoir. India) 71-179
Krakatau (isU Indon.) 71-368
Kraut Joseph 73-214
Krebs. Rockne

art and technology il. 73-344
Kronberger. Hans 72-309
Krugman. Saul 72-275
Krypton/argon dating 71-231
Kurchatov Institute (Moscow) 73-116
Kwashiorkor

mental development 71-195

L

Laboratory of Quantitative Biology (Cold
Spring Harbor. N.Y.) 71-239
La Brea. Rancho (Calif.) 72-52
Labyrmthodonl 71-178
Lack. David 71-69

Lac eperon (bactenal genetic system)

71-240

Lactase (enzyme)
black children 73-140
Lactose (Milk sugar)
synthesis 71-244

transport protein molecules 73-294
Ladybird beetle (Stethoois punclum)
73-342

Laki (fissure. Iceland) 71-33
Lambda po-nt (temperature) 71-317
Lambe'g-Karlovsky. C. C. (archae) 72-
165:71-114
figurne il. 71-111
Land, Edrvin H 73-257. ’tl. 255
Langley Medal (ae'onaulics) 73-251
Langmu<r. I'smg 72-124
Language

Tasaday Uibe 73-57
Lapa'oscopy 73-405
Up ta (pcfe'y-) 72-165
U'ge-tca'e integrated (lS?) system 73-
219
Laymf

art *.ciaf dev.ee 73-271; 71-222.

216

Use* 72-3-6:71-165
a^C tjde C tp'aci^fm: iJ 73-312
art fc'ge*y 72-53

'*7 73-203.72-211:71-155
cc J-ca’o-5 72-220 222. 71-167

dental research 72-229:71-173
earthquake forecasting 72-47
fabnc cutting iL 72-224
geodolite 73-228
lunar exploration 72-160; 71-124
measurement of distance between
earth and moon 71-135
medicine 72-278
meteorology 73-190
optical transmission techniques 73-
216

plasma heating 73-114
LASH (Lighter aboard ships) 73-335;

72-330

L-asparaginase (enzyme) 71 -239
Lassa fever 71 -220. 233
Latham. Gary (lunar seismologist) 73-164
Lattice structure: see under Crystallo-
graphy

Laurens. Paul 71-236
Lava 71-36

eruption ils. 72-232. 233
lunar 72-231:71-176
Law

child abuse 72-284
earthquake recording instruments
72-41

environmental sciences 72-244, 254
inTormation sciences 71-212
marijuana sale 73-273
packaging waste 72-364
pollution 72-194, 257
scientific developments in the UN 72-
432

Lawick-Goodall. Jane van 71-71
Law of the Sea 72-432
Lawrence. Ernest O. (phys.) 73-392;
71-185

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory 73-116
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (Berke-
ley. Calif.) 73-211. 392: 71 -375
Lawson's criterion 73-112
"Law Without Precedent” (Fallers) 71 -
145

L-Dopa (Dopa; Dlhydroxi-phenylalanine)
71-359

Parkinson's disease 71 -223
Lead 73-357
Lead poisoning 73-235
Lead sulfide 71-139
Leal (boL) 73-201
Leaf-cutting bee 73-333
Leafhopper il. 71 -60
Leaf roller moth 71-103
Leakey. Louis S. B. 72-165: 71-111
Leakey. Mary 72-166
Leakey. Richard 72-165
Lear. William 72-333
Learning (psych.) 73-193
Leo (astron.) 71-139
Leonhard. K. 73-237
Leprosy 73 -296
Lerman. L. S. 73-305
Lesion

cancer definition 73-94
Letter Mail Code Sortmg System
(LMCSS) 73-250
Leukemia 73-63; 72-291; 71-350
cytosine arabmoside 71-233
feline leukemia 71 -254
Levin. Boris 73-252
Levine. Les

art and technology il. 73-357
Lewin. Kurt (psych ) 72-417
Lew IS. Oscar (anthro ) 71 -4 1 7
Li. Choh Hao 72-218
Libfariansh'p 73 -253: 71 -21 1
Library of Ccrvgress 71-211
MARC 73-259
Licensure

paramed'cal personnel 73 -285
Lichtenstc’n. Roy
lithograph il.71-33
Lick Observatory (Ca'i’O'nia) 71-136
Lida* (laser radar) 72-355
aLmosphe’ic prob ng 73-190
Lie thec-y (math ) 72-272
Lde expectancy
V.VI You Live to Bo IDO’ 72-73
Ligate (enzymr-) 73-305
L»gh!

absOTJt'On 73-331; 72-21

ert—e do'ect'On 73-376
image s^'ens '<f' )' 73-23*
msect co-vo' 73 - 342. 71 -i?
si'-n co'‘d-ctcr d odes 71 -270
tr‘’ecom'-u-ca*'0''S 73-216

Lighter aboard ships: see LASH
Lightning

natural plasmas 73-113
Lightning rod

evidence of pinching 73-120
Lignite

mercury pollution 73-353
UM; see Linear-induction motor
Limestone 71 -156
Limit (Bound) (math.) 71-216
"Limits to Grovrth, The" (l.feadcws) 73-
234, 327

Lincoln Laboratory (MIT) 71-276
Linear-induction motor (LIM) 73-335:

72- 335:71-280

Line Islands Experiment 72-337
Linguistics
anthropology 73-194
archaeology 71-115
Tasaday tribe 73-65
Linnenbom. V. J. 73-250
Liouville. Joseph (math.) 71-216
Lipids 72-215. 293
biol^ical membranes 73-294
dietary treatment 72-251
Liquefied natural gas (U»G) 72-255:
71-200

international shipments 73-246
More Power for Tomorrow 72-135
motor vehicles 72-332
water transport 73-335
Liquid (stale of matter) 71-317
Lithium 73-125

Lithium carbonate (drug) 73 -237
Little. Kenneth (anthro.) 71-420
Liu. Wei Chi
acupuncture 73-2^

Liver

alcoholism 73-276
transplants 71 -233
Llamzon. Teodoro (linguist) 73-56
LMCSS (Letter Mail Code Sorting
System) 73-260
LKG: see Liquefied natural gas
Lockfgeol.) 72-^

Lockheed Aircraft Corp. 72-3^

Logic

artificial intelligence 73-1 W
Lorentz contraction 73-313
Lorenz. Konrad 72-593:71-63
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

(N, Wex.) 73-123. 316:71 -373
Louisa Gross Horvritz Pri2e (b'Ol )

73- 252

Lovell. James. Jr. 71-125
Low, Frank J. (astron.) 71 -140
Lowe. Charles U. 71 -195
Low-temperature research: see
Ciyogenics

LRV; see Lunar rovir^g vehicle
LSD (Ly-sergic acid d'ethylamde)
experiments with mice 71 -2S3
LSI (Large-sca’e integrated) sy-stem
73-219

Lomley, Henry de 73-164
Luna (spacecraft) 73-181. 222; 72-18^
Lunar Exploration 72-12
Apollo landi.ngs 73-175. 222:72-1 <6:
71-123. 13$

commumcat'ons 71-165
geology 72-330: 71-175
interior 73-134
mtcrob'O'ogy 71 -241
se-smo'^'ete^ 72-234
so 1 experiments 71 -234
Soviet Union 73-161:72-182. 1S4
Lunar module 73-175: 72-177; 71-123
Lunar rovng veh cle (LRV) 73-222.
il. 176:72-20. 173:71-127

Lung

artificial 0*9305 72-278 iK 279
effect of poMutton 73-235
rabies treatment 73-295
Lunokhod (rpacecraft) 73-161: 72-185.
il. 133

photography 3* 73-132
Lwoff. And'e (ge-ehcitt) 73-410
Lyman-e'pha rzd-a’ion 71-137
Ly~phoc>des
tooth de*cay 72-729
Lynch, frank (a^th*© ) 73-57
Lynch. W.: a-* A (p*'yo ) 73 -310
Lyoc'g o a:id d^*^i''3-td- (LSD)
eiptr.— f-t*. w :h r-.fce 71 -23S
L>*s ne(am no ac d) 73-131: 71 - 197
Lyt-oz yr-^r* 72 - 2 ! 4

Lyht'Oi^-'J' {'oc*- ! rep* >) 72 - 34?;
71-178 1 . 176

440

Index McConnell/Molecule

WI

McConnel!. Robert A. (psych.) 73-83
McOamer mite 71 -103. i(. 110
MacOonafd, Gordon J. F. (geophys.)

71 - 1 «

McDonald. James E. 72-330
SST operations 72-194
McDonald Observatory (Texas) 71 -136
McBroy. V/illiam D 71-273
Machine fanguage 73-104
Machine-readable cataloging; see MARC
KfacKenzte. Fred T. 73-225
MacLeod, Cohn Munro 73-310
Macrobiotics 73-139. 243
Macrophage (biol.) 71 -331
Magic 71 -323

Magma (molten rock) 72-231:71-39
fuel and power 72-140
Magnesium
nut/Jbon 71-196

Recommended Dietary Allowances
73-135
Magnet

focusing proton beam 73-392
Magnetic bottle 73-114
Magnetic bubble

communications 72-220: 71 -168.

If. 166

computers 72-226
Magnetic core 71-184
Magnetic field
archaeology 73-166
atmospheric sciences 72-335
communications 71 -163, il. 166
cryogenics 71-317
gas as a conductor of electncity

72- 133
moon 73-185

plasma confinement 73-113
superconductivity 72-320
thermonuclear reactions 72-392;

71- 374

Magnetic iron 71-46
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHO) 72-138
plasma instability 73-115
Magnetosphere
solar energy 72-385
Magruder, William M. 73-320
Majeve, Archie fanthro.) 71 -422
Ma’ana

mosquito control 71 -52
scientific developments in the UN

72- 427

Malde. Harold E. (geol.) 71 -398
Malignancy

cancer definition 73-94
fJalnutrition; see Foods and nutrition
Malpighian tubules 73-342
Mammals

La Brea excavations 72-55
Wildlife imports 73-13
Mandelbaum. David (anthro.) 72-106
Manganese

nutritional importance 72-251
Recommended Dietary Allowances

73- 135

“Manhattan" (tanker) 71 -193. il. 200
Manhattan Project 71 -362
maniac (computer) li. 71-367
Manifolds (math.) 73-264
Manning. Charles
Sickle-celt anemia 73 -297
Manofco (cultural-linguistic group)

73-50. 64
Manpower 73-425
Chinese estimates 73-39
lob opportunities 71 -277
Mansfield amendment 71-273
Mao Tse-tung 73-35. 269
Maps. Geologic 73-224
Marc (Machme-readable cataloging)
73-259:71 -211

MARC-Oklahoma Data Base Storage and
Retrieval Project 73-259
Marcuse, Herbert 72-323
Marek’s disease 72-295
vaccine 73-160. 337
Mariculture (Aquiculture) 72-263. 333
Marijuana (Marihuana) 72-235
add'Ction 72-276
effect on cats and dogs 73 -337
Mead. Margaret 72-t03
Mannalos. Soyridon (archae.) 73-164;

71-336

Manner (spacecraft) 73-179. 166; 72-
165:71-129. 135

Marine Sciences 73-260. 72-266
atmospheric sciences 71 -141
Killer Storms 72-121
continental drift 72-45
Fos, Gulf of

man-made harbor 73-170
geology 73-223; 72-233: 71-177
molecular biology 71 -245
oceanography 73-339: 71-254
pollution

zoology il 72-249
scientific developments in the UN

72- 431

waste disposal 72-354
Mark, V H 73-288
Marmor. Judd 73-137
Marriage

birth control 71 -409
rituals 71-330
Tasaday tribe 73-60
Mars (planet) 73-186, il 180-181; 72-
136; 71-129. 136, 165
geological behavior 73-223
satellites

Deimos and Phobos ils 73-187
space probes 73-179
Mars (So'/iet spacecraft) 73-187
instrumented pod 73~tBQ
Maruyama. Magoroh 72-199
MASCA (Applied Science Center for
Archaeology) 71 -391
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
computers 73-222
Mass-energy equation (Einstein)
Buckminster Fuller design 71-347
Massey Medal (earth sciences) 73-254
Masursky. Harold 73-160
Mathematics 73-264; 72-269 : 71-214
cryptology 71-359
Fuller. Buckminster 71-342
graduate enrollment 73-428
heuristic programming 73-102
mathematical models
atmosphere 73-191; 71-141
relationship of subatomic particles

71-367

metric language 73-147
Nobel prizes 73-415
structural chemistry 71-162
Matiyasevich. Y. V. (math.) 71-215
Mattingly, Thomas K.. U 73-175. il. 170
Mauna Loa. volcano. Hawaii 71-38
Max Planck Society for the Advance-
ment of Science 72-389
bone marrow tumor research 73-299
Maxwell. J. C. (phys.) 71-158
Mayan civilization 71-113
Mayer, Jean 72-252
nutrition and obesity 73-138
Mayer. Maria Goeppert (phys.) 73-310
Mayer. Phillip (anthro.) 71-422
Mayon. ML. volcano. Philippines 71-36
Mayr. Brnsl 72-342
MC (Mitochondrial complementation)

73- 162

Mead, Margaret 72-102
generation gap 71-147
Kalinga Prize 73-257
Meadows. Dennis L. and Danella
computer evaluation of v/orld problems
73-326

Measles 72-274:71-221
Mechanical heart: see Artificial organs
Medex (paramedical training programs)
73-285

Medicaid 72-275
Medical ethics 73 - 274. 279
Medicine 73-266:72-272; 71-217
biofeedback 73-7S
biomedical research 73-13
v/ildlife extinction ifs. 73-20. 28
Chinese policies 73-45
computers 73-222; 72—227; 71—177
cryogenics 71-314
dentistry; see under Dentistry
diagnosis 71-175
disease-carrying insects 71-52
drugs: see under Drugs
e'ectroH'c devices 72-241
enzymes 72-210

fe<feral funds for research 71-272
heart: see under Heart
honors 73-255; 72-263; 71-203
hormone synthesis 71-160
life-span 72-73

lunar expen-^ents 73-177; 72-161
Medicine and the Arts 71-1S
m'Crob'Ologv 72-371:71 -233

molecular biology 73-297; 71-243
Nobel prizes 73-415
nuclear energy 71-367
nutritional deficiencies 73-241; 71-194
pollution and respiratory disease
73-235

psychiatry: see under Psychiatry
scientific developments in the UN

72-427

transplants; see under Transplants
Treating the Unborn and Newborn

72- 65

use of photography 72-31 1
viroids 73-160
Weizmann Institute 71 -378
Zen macrobiotics 73-139
MEDLINE (medical literature service)

73- 259

Medroxy progesterone acetate 71-218
M87 galaxy (Virgo A) 71-132
Membrane
cell 73-302; 71-245
synthetic 72-235
Memory

electronics 73-219: 71-184
"Men in Groups” (Tiger) 71-145
Menninger Foundation (Topeka. Kansas)
73-78

Mental development
effect of malnutrition 71-195
Mental health; see Psychology: Behavioral
sciences; Psychiatry
Mercury (chem.) 73-362
distribution ir> oceans 73-260
fish pollution 73-19: 72-251. 277
pesticides 71-193
pollution 73-341 : 72-266
supertransuranic elements 72-319
Mercury (planet) 72-190
Mernam. John C. (pa)eon.) 72-54
Merrifield. Robert B. 72-218
Mernfield method 72-218
MESFET (Metal semiconductor field
effect transistor) 72-226
Meson 73-319
treatment of cancer 72-321
Messenger RNA (m-RNA)
hormone studies 71-288
transcription and translation 73-304;
71-241

Metabolism 71 - 198. 230
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)
process 73-219: 71-185
MetaLoxygen bonds 71-246
Metals

archaeology 73-164
earth minerals 73-360
molecular structure 72-396
pollution 72-356
recycling 73-238
superconductivity 71-319
volcano 7i -39

Metal semiconductor field effect tran-
sistor (MESFET) 72-226
Metastasis

cancer definition 73-94
Metathoracic ganglion 72-343
Meteorite 72-230; 71-133. il. 364
Meteorology: see Atmospheric sciences
f.tethadone (drug) 73-272. 290. il. 283
medical treatment program 72-285
Methane (chem.) 73-204; 71-161
Methemoglobinemia 71-243
Methoxychlor (chem ) 73 -206
Methyl eugenol 71 -60
13-methylhentnacontane 73 -342
Methylmalonate 71-195
Methyl mercury 73-352; 72-266
Metric System 73-145
Metrolmer 73-231

Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment
(METROMEX) 73-192
Mezzawa site (Ischia, isU Italy)
ancient Greek vessel il. 73-166
MHD:see Magnetohydrodynamics
Michael. Henry 71-392
Microbiology 73-293; 72-294; 71-233
botany 72-205
electronics 71-183
herbicides 73-161
honors 71-206
lunar sod 71-234
meWanotacteriu'n forrmc/curv
«L 73-354

methyl mercury ic'rnaticn 73-367
TT'crcbic degradation 72-263
sewage d spcsal 72-371
f/icrocrystals 72-404

Microearthquakes 73-228; 71 -46
Microelectronics
brain 71-167. 184
Microfilm 72-225. 312: 71-260
Microfossils 72-62
Microinstabilities 73-115
Microprograms 72-224
Micro-replication 73-283
Microscope
art forgery 72-93

cnmedetection.il 73-379.386-87
electron: see Electron microscope
Microtremors (geophysics) 71-179
Microvrave

communications 72-226; 71-168
DUV transmission 73-215
electronic devices 72-243; 71-185
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 71-252
Migration
birds 72-394

urban anthropology 71-416
Miiedi, R. 72-285
Milk 72-250
liter measure 73-154
mental retardation 73-140
Milk Sugar; see Lactose
Milky Way 72-188
carbon monoxide 71-139
Miller. Neal 72-203
Millimeter-wave frequencies 72-221;

71- 168

Willis, John S. 73-274
Minamata disease 73-364
Mine Health and Safety Academy 72-257
Miner, Horace (anthro.) 71-417
Minerals
deposits

indicator plants 71-tSl
diet requirements 72-250
malnutrition 73-247
Minicomputer 73-219: 71-170
Mining

coal 72-133. 258; 71-201
industry on the moon 72-26
inspection and enforcement 73-249
fead poisoning 73-368
nuclear warning device 71-367
Minoan civilization 71-385
Mirror machine
magnetic bottle 73-114
Mitchell. Clyde (anthro.) 71-421
Mitchell. Edgar D. 72-177, 230
Mile (zool.)71-108
integrated control 73-342
Mitochondna 72-301
cell membrane 72-340
DNA 73-307; 71-249. il. 248
effects of freezing 71-245
Mitochondria! complementation (MC)

73-162

Mitosis 72 -206

MittelstaedL Horst 72-394

Mizutani. Satoshi 72-300. 306

Mobilized medicine 73-275

Mob Violence 71-72

Model (computer technology) 73-221 ;

72- 381

Moderiocked laser 72-211
Modified Mercalli scale 72-42
Modular system (arch.) il. 73-169
housing 71 -116
Sears Tower 73-167
Module (spacecraft) 72-30: 71-123
P.foho (Mohorovicic discontmuiLy) (geol.)

71-180

Molecular architecture 73-205
Molecular Biology 73 -297; 72-298:

71-242

biological membranes 73-294
bipolar studies 73-287
cancer 73-85

genetics: see under Genetics
honors 72-231;7l-205
immunology 71 -226
life-span 72-60
mat.gnant disease 72 - 290
m-croorganisms 71 -233
transformation of mercury 73-265
Weizmann Institute of Science 71 -378
Molecule 72-211;71 -1S5
absolute configuration 71 -164
atom-mofecule reacton 72-214
chemical d/nam'cs 73-207
chemical r;nthesis 72-216
e’ect'on m crosccpe 71 -255
interst6"ar matter 72-183
motion 71 -3U
nuclear te'^avior 72-318

441

Index Motniya/ Obituaries

plastics 72-401

polyhedral: see Polyhedral molecules
structure 73-211. 297, 319; 72-298
see a/so Molecular biology
Molniya (satellite) 73-218:72-174
Molten salt process (coal gasification)
73-205

Molting hormone: see Ecdysone
Molybdenum 72-246. 251
Recommended Dietary Allowances
73-135

Moment of inertia (phys.)

dysprosium-156 73-319
Momentum transfer (phys.) 73-313
Monkey

animal experimentation 73-289
behavioral patterns 72-394
psychological experiments 72-202;

71- 149

transplant into humans 72-84
Monod. Jacques (geneticist) 73-410;

72- 291

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) 71 -225
brain damage in mice 73-137
Monte Carlo simulation technique
cost control by computer 73-168
Moog synthesizer 71 -183
Moon: see Lunar exploration
Morgan, Jason W. 73-229
Morison, Robert 73-282; 71-274
Morphine (drug)
addiction 72-287

"Morphology of the Folktale" (Propp)

71 -334

Mortality rate 71-402
Morton. Rogers C. B. 73-245
Mosaic virus 71 -110
MOS process; see Metal oxide semi-
conductor process
Mosqum. T. (bot.) 71-153
Mosquito 73-338; 72-338; 71 -52. il. 53
VEE 73-297. 336
Mothproofing

experimental compounds 73-162
Motion pictures: see Film
Motor. Electric

superconducting windings 71 -321
Motor vehicles 72-332; 71 -280
automobile

Fuller. Buckminster 71 -340
mobile communications 73-231
pollution 73-235, 331; 72-363:

71-189

computer testing 73-221
lead in gasoline 73-360
metric parts and tools 73-147
Mountam-building 71-44
m*RNA: see Messenger RNA
MSG: see Monosodium glutamate
Multiple sclerosis 72-215
Multispectral photography 72-176;

71-122

Munch, Edvard
painting il. 71-31

Mundigak (archae. site, Afghanistan)
71-114
Muon 73-396

Murphy. Gardner (psych.) 73-76
Muscalure

fly attractant 73-160
Muscle (physiol.) 71 -81
effect of ethanol consumption 73-278
Music, Electronic 71 -183
Mutation

antibody variability 71 -226
gene mapping 73-307
gerontology 72-83
non-Darwiman evolution 71 -250
Mycoplasma 71-109
Myelin 72-215
Myeloma protein
antibody activity 71 -228
Mynah (bird) 72-339
Myocard.al Infarction 73-267; 7i -82
Myoglobin (protein) 71 -242
"Myth of the Birth ot the Hero. The"
(Rank) 71 -331

N

n.vph 72-227
see fla!<onot Academy of

Crvjnef'ing

tiKl- see Na’icna’ Accf'erstor Lalxsratory
tamu (a'chae si'e Bfit Coiymt-A)

73-U5

Naphtha 73-203
Narcotics: see under Drugs
NAS: see National Academy of Sciences
NASA: see National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NAMH Research Achievement Award
(mental health) 73 -255
National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
71-299

future network planning report 73-218
National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
71-234

The Atmospheric Sciences and Man's
Needs (report) 73-189
drug ratings 73-270
earthquake forecasting 72-47
lead poisoning 73-370
Recommended Dietary Allowances
73-134

report on facts of radiation from
atomic power 72-330
Shockley, William 73-328
technology assessment 71-299
National Accelerator Laboratory (NAL)
(Batavia, ill.) 73-391
experiments 73-315; 71-262
National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) 72-173;
71-120, 135

agricultural research 72-163
ATS-F satellite
Indian education 73-172
Colonizing the Moon 72-29
extraterrestrial amino acids 72-232
federal research funds 73-322:71-272
future plans 73-183
marine science research programs
73-263

Nimbus F 73-190
nuclear reactors 71 -365
oceanography 71 -256
space shuttle 72-181
National Association of Mentat Health
(NAMH)
honors 73-255

National Bureau of Standards 73-322
National Cancer Act 73-86
National Cancer Institute (NCI) 73-66
National Center for Atmospheric
Research (NCAR) 73-191
cloud seeding 72-194
National Center for Disease Control
73-132

National Center for Earthquake Research
(NCER) 73-220; 72-379; 71-179
National Clearinghouse on Alcoholic
Information 73-278
National Commission on Libraries and
Information Science (NCLIS)
73-258

National Commission on Marihuana and
Drug Abuse 73-273
National Commission on Venereal
Disease 73-292

National Communicable Disease Center
(Atlanta. Ga.) 73-295; 71 -238
National Conference of Weights and
Measures 73-154
National Crime Information Center
(NCIC) 73-259

National Environmental Policy Act
(U.S.) 73-239: 72-246. 254;

71- 190

National Environmental Satellite Service
(NESS) 73-173:72-174
National Fund for Medical Education
73-274

National Goals Research Staff of the
White House 72-323
National Hail Research Experiment

72- 382

seeding hailstorms 72-198
National health program
dental care 72-227

National Mean and Lung Institute (U.S )
71-222, 237

National Hemophilia Foundation (N.Y.)
71-224

National Hurricane Center 72-197
National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism (N1AAA) 73-276
National Institute of Dental Research
(NIOR) 73-282; 71 -173
Nattonat Institutes ol Health (NIH)
(Bethesda. Md ) 71 -239, 272
f'^eral research funds 73-323
•m-nunoglobulm structure 73-293
f/at'Onal Marine Fishrrir^s Service 72-208

National Meteorological Center (U.S.)

73-173

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) 72-174,

194, 266; 71-256
thunderstorms 72-382
National Radio Astronomy Observatory
Kilt Peak. Ariz. 71-118, 138
solar telescope tower il. 71-119
VLA 73-184

National Railroad Passenger Corporation:
see AMTRAK

National R & D Assessment Program
73-322

National Science Foundation (NSF)
73-221;72-380;71-272
demand for doctorates 73-429
education, science 72-238
federal science budget 73-263, 304,
322; 72-324

National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA) 72-240

National Security Agency (NSA) (U.S.)

71 - 351

National Severe Storms Forecasting
Center (NSSFC) 72-197
National Society for the Prevention of
Blindness 71-226

National Training Laboratory for Group
Development (NTL Institute)

72- 417

National Weather Service 72-120
Natural gas 73-203. 247; 72-130. 254;
71-198

tankers 73-248
Natural selection 71-67, 250
Nature reserves 73-15
Naval Electronics Laboratory Center
(U.S.) 71-142

Nava! Research Laboratory (U.S.) 71-132
Navigation satellites 73-175; 72-176;
71-123

Naxolone (drug) 72-286
NCAR: see National Center for Atmos*
pheric Research

NCER: see National Center for Earth*
quake Research

NCI (National Cancer Institute) 73-86
NCIC (National Crime Information
Center) 73 -259

NCLIS (National Commission on
Libraries and Information
Science) 73-258
Neanderthal man
vitamin D deficiency 72-342
Nebufa 72-190
Necrology: see Obituaries
Needham, Joseph 73-34
Negro, American 71-147
Shockley’s genetic theory 73-328
Neiseria meningitidis 71 -247
Nematode (zool.) 71 -108
beetle control 73-161
mosquito control il. 73-235
Neonatal hematology 72-73
Neoplasm (Tumor)
cancer definition 73 -94
Nernst, Walther (chem.) 71 -314
Nerve growth factor (NGF) 73-300
Nervous system 73-339; 72-343
analysis of membranes 72-302
coding 73-199
drug addiction 72-265
pharmacology 71 -232
theory of acupuncture 73-269
NESS; see National Environmental
Satellite Service

Net photosynthesis (bot.) 71-109
Neurath. Hans 72-214
Neuron 73-199: 72-285. 343
Neurophysiology 72-73
Neutrinos 72-190; 71 -371
high*energy physics 73-397; 72-315
Neutron 73-314

activation as analytical tool 72-98:

71 - 371

diffraction 73-212
nuclear domain 73-316
Neutron star 73 -315
Nevada Test Site (NTS) 71-180
Newcastle disease 73-336
“New Lives for Old" (Mead) 72-105
Newton. Sif Isaac if. 73-317
New York Board of Fire Underwriters

72- 172

NGF (Nerve growth factor) 73-300
NIAAA (National Institute of Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism) 73-276

NIDR: see National Institute of Dental
Research

NIH; see National Institutes of Health
Nikolayev, Andrian 72-182
Nilsson. Robert 73-372
Nimbus (satellites)

meteorology 73-173, 190:71-122, 142
9 evenings: theatre and engineering
(teckart exhibit) 73-347
Ninkovitch, Dragoslav (archae.) 71 -386
Niobium 71-320

Nirenberg, Marshall W. (geneticist)

73-422:71-246
Nitrates 73-200
Nitric oxide

chemical bonding 71-161
chemical lasers 71-155
laser research 73-217
Nitrllotriacetic acid (NTA) 73-237;

72-297

Nitrogen

cryogenics 73-280; 71 -313
improved plastics 72-209
Mars atmosphere 71 -136
Nitrosomonas (bacteria) 73-200:71-246
Nixon, Alan C. (Indus, chem.) 73-326
NOAA: see National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration
Nobel Prizes 73-410
honors and awards 73-253; 72-261;
71-207

Noble gases (chem.) 71 -371
Non*siIver photographic systems 73-311;
71-259

Norepinephrine (hormone) 73-290
North Slope (area. Alaska) 72-255, 331
NSA (National Security Agency) (U.S.)

71- 351

NSA Black Book 71 -361
NSF: see National Science Foundation
NSSFC (National Severe Storms
Forecasting Center) 72-197
NSTA (National Science Teachers
Association) 72-240
NTA: see Nitrllotriacetic acid
NTL Institute (National Training Labors*
tory for Group Development)

72- 417

NTS (Nevada Test Site) 71 -180
Nuclear clock 71 -388
Nuclear energy 72-131, 258; 71-201
Chinese policies 73-47
earthquakes 73-225; 72-48; 71-180.
il. 179

fission 73-318:71-268
fuel and power 73-245
honors 73-256
Max Planck Society 72-391
merchant ships 72-336
National Accelerator Laboratory

73- 391

Prometheans ol the Atom 71-362
scientific developments in the UN
72-430

superconducting magnets 71 -320
Weizmann Institute 71 -382
Nuclear magnetic resonance 73-213;
71-161

Nuclear medicine 71 -229
Nuclear physics 73-316; 71 -264
archae. and geologic dating 71-388
Atomic Energy Commission 71 -354
Nucleic acids 73-85. 300
Nucleotides 71 -240. 246
ATP. ADP, AMP 73-293
Nucleus 73-391
stability 73-316. il. 318
structure 73-211
Numbers. Theory of 71 -214
Nurse practitioner 73 -285
Nutrition: sec Foods and nutrition
Nutritional Awareness Campaign 72-251
Nyswandcr, Marie 72-287

O

Oak Ridge National Laboratory
atomic structure 73-21 1
nuclear medicme 71 -229
OAO: SCO Orbiting Astronomical
Observatory

OAS (Organization of Amenc.m States)
environmental education 72-238
Oats 71-109
Obesity 73-120; 72-25?

Obltuarle* 73-3-97; 73-303; 71-250

442

Index Observatories/ Polymerase

Observatories

architecture and engineering 71-118
see a/so Tefescopes
Obstetrics 71 -218
Tasaday tribe 73-60
Occultation (astron.) 73-167
Oceanography 71 -254
ERTS sensors 73-174
research programs 73-263
see also Marine sciences
Ocelli (zoo!.) 73-336
OCR (Optical character recognition)

73-220

Oedipal theory 71 -332
Office of Library Coordination (Canada)
73-258

Office of Scientific and Technical
Information (OSTI) 73-258
OGO (Orbiting Geophysical Observatory)
comets 71-138

Ohmic (Resistive) heating 73-118
Ohno, S.

testicular feminization 73-307
Ohsawa. Georges

Zen macrobiotics movement 73-138
Oil

pollution 73-20: 71 -192, 254
yield from waste disposal 71 -155
see also Petroleum
Olah. George (chem.) 71 -161
Oldenburg. Claes
art and technology il. 73-356
Olivine 71 -180
moon’s interior 73-185
Olmec culture 73-165
Olsson, Ingrid U. (archae.) 71-390
Omega Minus 73-423
One Shell Plaza (Houston. Tex,)
architecture and engineering 72-168
Onnes. Heike Kamerlingh (phys.) 71-320
Ontario College Bibliocentre (Canada)
73-259

OPEC: see Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
Operon (genetics) 71 -240
Opik, E. J. 73-252
Opium (drug) 72-286
Oppenheim, 0. E. 71 -330
Opsin (biol.) 73-301
Optical bottle 73-216
Optical character recognition (OCR)
73-220

Orbital workshop 73-177;71-128
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory
(OAO) 71-130. 137
Orbiting Geophysical Observatory
(OGO)

comets 71 -138

Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) 73-182
gamma ray astronomy 71 -132
Orcutt, V/illiam (geol.) 72-54
Ore flotation 73-368
Organelle (biol.) 71 -249
Organization of American States (OAS)
environmental education 72-238
Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Counlries (OPEC) 73-245: 72-255
Organ transplants: see Transplants
Omithischian dinosaurs 71 -291
Orthoferrites 71-168
Orthogenesis (anthro.) 71 -417
Orthopedics 71-237
Ortiz. Alphonse (anthro.) 71 -145
Oscillators 71 -168
Oscilloscope 71 -266
Osmium 71 -268

OSO: see Orbiting Solar Observatory
OSTI (Office of Scientific and Technical
Information) 73-258
Ostrander. Sheila (au.) 73-75
Ovum 73-404. ils. 400. 407
Owo (archae. site. Nigeria) 73-163
Oxnard, Charles (zool.) 71 - 291
Oxygen
atmosphere
moon 72-22
blood circulation 71 -79
cryogenics 71 -314
developing fetus 72-67
effect on longevity 72-329
hemoglobin 73-297; 71 -243
isotopes in lunar minerals 71 -135
sewage disposal 72-375
spacecraft 72-176: 71 -126
underwater lungs 73-409
Ozone (gas) 72-203. 303
SST 11.72-195

P

P.A (Physician’s assistant) 72-274
Pacemakers 72 -279 ; 71 -90, 236
Pacifann 72-251
Pacific Ocean 71 -179
Pacoima Dam
seismic signals 73-227
PAGEOS (satellite) »1- 72-174
Pam 71-71

Painvin. Georges-Jean 71 -357
Pakiser, Louis C.. Jr. 72-40
Paleolithic age
cultural evolution 71 -327
Tasaday tribe 73-50
Paleontology 73-163, 224:72-166;

71- 178, 290

Antarctic reptile fossil 72-233
Asphalt Cemetery of the Ice Age

72- 52

botany 72-204
early man 71-111
Lystrosaurus fossil iL71-176
pollution 71 -188
Swartkrans skull iL 73-194
uranium-series dating 71 -398

Palm

Tasaday tribe 73-61
Panalba (drug) 71 -235
Paper

Buried m Affluence 72-363
recycling 73-238

Paper bridge 71 -282, tl. 280
Paramedical personnel 73-283. ils. 284
Chinese policies 73-45
Parapsychology: see under Psychology

Parasite (biol.)

insect control 73-161, 342; 71 -58
Pardee, A. B. 72-303
Paricutin. volcano. Mexico 71-36
Parkinson’s disease 71-224, 313
Parpola. Asko (archae.) 71-115
Particle Accelerator 73-391
Atomic Energy Commission 71 -365
ion beams il. 73-319
nuclear fusion 73-112
protons 73-313: 72-316
superconductivity 72-321 : 71 -270. 321
Particles. Elementary 72-314:71-261
nuclear fusion 73-112
studies at AEC laboratories il. 71 -373
Pathogens

biological pest control 72-341
Patsayev. Viktor 1. 73-178; 72-309
Patterson, Bryan
archaeology 73-163
Patterson. C, C.

lead levels in ice 73-368

Pauli exclusion principle (phys.) 73 31b

Pauling. Linus 72-252. 277

vitamin C and common cold 73-135
Pauw. B. A. (anthro.) 71 -422

Pavlov. Ivan 73-414

PCBs: see Polychlorinated biphenyls
p-chlorcphenylalanme (PCPA) 71 -219
Peace 71 -67

science and technology m the UN
72-424

Pearce. Hubert E.. Jr. 73-73 _ ,

"peasant V/ars of the Twentieth Century
(Wolf) 71 -146

peccei. Aurelio (indus.) 73-376
Pell, Claiborne (sen.. U.S.) 73 19Z
Pendulum 73-152
Penguins 71 -289
Penicillin 73 -291
Peptides 73-214; 72-217
Periapsis 73-179
Peridotite 72 -232:71-180
Perigordian culture 72-201

Perinatal Medicine 72-65

Penodontal (Gum) disease 72-229;
71-174

pericoronitis 73-283
periscope

observation of root growth 73 -290
Permafrost 72-135

Permease (enzyme) 72-1^1

Perpignan (archae. site. '"^•>73-164
Personal Rapid Transit system 73 334.

il. 333

Perutz. Max 73-402
Pest Control 71 -50. 241

agricultural research 72-161
attractants 73-160
biological control: see Biological
controls

Chinese policies 73-46
environmental health 71-192
foods and nutrition 72-251
new methods 73-338: 71-108
organic foods 73-137
pesticides 73-205. 238, 243: 72-337.

341

synthetic chemicals 72-217: 71 -159
threat to wildlife 73-19
UN antimalana programs il. 72-428
vetennary medicine 73-336
Petroleum 73-241; 72-254: 71-197
earthquake control 72-48
mercury pollution 73-363
North Slope. Alaska 72-330
ocean pollution 73-260: 72-267
offshore drilling
pollution il. 72-349
pollution controls 73-236
Shipping 72-132
Petrov, Boris 72-182
Pfizer Laboratories 73-293
Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associa-
tion (PMA) 71-235
Pharmacist

paramedical personnel 73-286
Pharmacology; see Drugs
Phenylalanine 73-140
Phenylketonuria (PKU) 73-140
Pheromones

identification of chemical structure
72-215

insects 73-342: 71 -60. 108, 287
Phosphate fluoride
dental care 72-229
phosphates

hemoglobin 71 -244

methyl mercury control 73-367

pollution 73-237: 72-244
Phosphorescence

measuring light pulses of laser 72-212
Phosphoric acid
dental care 72-228
Phosphorus 71-229
acupuncture therapy 73-81
Recommended Dietary Allowances

73-135

Photochemistry 72-212
Photoelectric effect 73-301
Photofacsimile recorder il. 73-380
photography 73-311: 72-310: 71-259
bubble chamber 73-396
crime detection 73-380
electron microscope 71 -266

honors 73-257

image mtensifieril. 73-231

\unlr exploration 73-179: 72-180. 185

Mars 73-186

oceanography 73-339: 71 -257
psychic phenomena 73-81

satellites 72-174; 71 -122

study of subatomic particles 71-366
tornadoes 72-117
Photoionization 73-207
Photokina 70 (photography) 72-310
Photon 72-187. 212
momentum 73-216
Photoperiod (bol.) 71 -153
Photorespiration (bot.) 71-109
Photosynthesis 73-201; 72-205; 71-109
lunar exploration 72-24
Phototypesetting 72-243
PHS: see Public Health Service. U.S.
Phylogenetics 71 -154
Physician’s assistant (P.A.) 72-274
Physics 73-313:72-313:71-261
cryogenics 71 -313
employment 73-426
high-energy physics 73-391:71 -251
honors 73-256: 72-263; 71 -209
Nobel prizes 73-422
nuclear: see Nuclear physics
solid-state: see Solid-state physics
Phytoplankton (biol.) 73-366:72-266
picardi. E. Alfred (arch.) 73-168
Piccard. Jacques 71 -253
Pickenng. Sir George 73-280
Picturephone 71 -1 67

frame replenishment 73-215

Pierce. J. R 73-232
Pierson. Willard J., Jr. 72-267
Piezoelectricity 71-184
Pill. The: see Contraceptives
Pj mesons 73-314: 72-314; 71 -133
Pinch effect 73-120
Pioneer (spacecraft) 73-182. 189
Pioneer (space probe) 73-253

Pipelines 73-332; 72-136; 71 -193
communications 72-221
environmental factors 73—239, 247
North Slope. Alaska 72-331
transporting oil 72-254
U S.S.R. ils 73-245-46
Piper. William Thomas 71 -252
Pituitary glands 72-218
Piwnica. Armand 71 -236
PK (Psychokinesis) 73-68
PKU (Phenylketonuria) 73-140
Placebo 73-136
Placenta 73-341:72-66
Placenta praevia
diagnostic procedure 72-70
Plaintext (cryptology) 71-354
Planetary exploration: see Astronautics
and space exploration
Plankton 73-224

Planned parenthood: see Birth control
Plants: see Botany
Plaque. Dental 73-282
Plasma physics 72-391
nuclear fusion 73-113
Plasmon 72-322
Plastics 72-396

architecture and engineering 72-170
consumer complaints 72-208
dentistry 71 -175, il. 174
housing modules 71 -117
oxidation of propylene 71-156
use on the moon 72-13
waste disposal 72-356
Weizmann Institute 71 -385
Plate tectonics 72-232
Pleated sheet (B-structure) (polypeptide
chain) 71 -243
Pleistocene epoch 73-194
Asphalt Cemetery of the Ice Age 72-52
Calico Mountains excavations 71-112
Pliocene-Pleistocene age 71 -397
Plowshare, Project 71 -202, 367
PL (Piecewise linear) space 72-271
Plumbing 73-150
Plumes (geol.) 73-229
Plutonium 73-316: 71-365, 370

nuclear-powered heart 73-271: 71-236
PMA (Pharmaceutical Manufacturers
Association) 71-235
Pneumatic structures 71-118
P-N junction (microelectronics)
semiconductor diodes 71 -270
Pogonophora 73-339
Polar bears il. 71-289
Polar caps (Mars) 71 -136
Politics 72-246:71-165
Poljak. H.J. 73 -299
Pollard. H. Marvin 73-86
Pollination 73-200. 338:71-153
Pollock. M. R. 73-408
Pollution 73-326: 72-354; 71 -188
agricultural research 72-160:

its. 73-160. 162
air

Clean Air Amendments 72-194
gasoline exhaust 73-331; 71 -280
new automobiles 72 -330
control techniques 73-169; 71 -118.

155

drugs 71 -234

effect on climate 71-144

effect on health 73-234

fuel and pov/er 73-246; 72-131, 256;

71- 198

hydrological research 73-230
insecticides 72-277: 71 -54
laser monitoring 73-216: 72-323
metals 73-360
plastics 72-208

scientific developments m the UN

72- 429

The Senses Beseiged 72-344
solvated ions 73 -207
threat to wildlife 73-19
extinction ils. 73-14, 17, 25
water 73-250. 341:72-369:71-239
aquatic weeds 73-161
ERTS detection system 73-174
oceans 72 -245. 266: 71 -254
zoology 72-333: 71 -287
Polyacrylamide 72-299
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
73-19. 260. 341
Polyether 72-216
Polyethylene 72-336
Polymerase 73 - 305: 72-292
cancer viruses 72-2S5
prcrfirus hypothesis 72-300

443

Index Polymers/ Ruzic

Polymers 72-218. 396; 71 -357
plastics 72-203
Vi'eizmann Institute 71 -385
Polyolefin 71-160
Poly-1 :C (RNA) 73-96: 71 -239
Polypeptides

chemical synthesis 73-209
dwarfing genes 73-338
protein molecules 72 -299. 306
structure 73-214. 297; 72-215;

71 -242. 378

Polypropylene (chem.) 72-402
Polysaccharide 72-340
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 73-363; 72-203
Polywater; see Anomalous v/ater
Population 71-400, 415
Commission on Population Growth
73-234

computer evaluation 73-326
environmental destruction 73-18
explosion 71 -190
birth control 72 -273
foods and nutrition 73-240
fuel and power 72-137
IQ studies 73-198
scientific developments in the UN
72-427

Tasaday tribe 73-60
venereal disease 73-290
Portola. Gaspar de72-S3
Potassium-argon dating: see Dating
(archae.)

Potential Gas Committee 73 -203
Pottery

radiocarbon dating 72-163
Poultry

diseases 73-335
Poverty 71 -418

aggression and violence 71 -72
biological anthropology 71 -145
Powell. Cecil Frank 71 -252
Pratt J. G. (psych.) 73-73
Precambrian Era 73-225: 72-204
Precession of the earth 71-124
Predators (biol.)
control programs 73-17
insect control 72-341; 71 -58
plant-animal interactions 73-200
Prefabrjcalion 72-170
Pregnancy 72-65
brain development 73-140
cancer 73-87

effect of malnutrition 71 -195
test-tube conception 73-401
toxoplasmosis 73-337
Premack. David (psych.) 72 -202; 71-149
Priestley Medal (chem ) 73-253
Princeton University Plasma Physics
Laboratory 73-119
Pritchard. James 73-163: 72-165
Prizes: see Honors
Probability 73-104
Probatnognalhus 71 -178
Procaine 72-84

Procter Medal (med-cme) 73-255
Programming 73-105
Promsulin 73-303

Project 99 (digital data network) 73-232
Projector (photography) 71 -250
Prokaryotes 72-205
Prokhorov. Aleksandr M 73-422
Propionate71-I9o

Propp. Vlad.m'T 71 -334
Prooyle''e 72-402: 71-155
Prostaglandins 72-273
synthesis 73-210; 71 -160
Prosthesis
h'0 71-237
knee 73 -271
see alto Art ’icial O'gans
Protcn 72-427; 71 -242
b’C'og.ca! me— sranes 73 -294
cancc' 73-ES
c»*’i membrane 72-?35
cc-*o*r-at.onai ana’ys:s 72-214
foods £-d nutr.t.on 73-241:7i-sci4
m-croergan.'-s 71 -329
Q'^*D''toi07y72-£2
h»-3’:n e-'ts 73-123

‘“■'“-■’•e C'Oc<->s 71 -22^
m > I'o • ra*on j.*'**

73-4:5

r‘3-s 71-110 1£1
s"uctw'<- 73-297; 72-??5
72-217. 3P3

u-V 71-37?

'US . 172-3X

Tt-sata-r t' 73-rt

Protein clock (archaeology) 71-291
Proto-Dravidian language 71 -115
Proton 73-391; 71-261. 263
accelerator see Particle accelerator
fusion power 73-112
ISR 73-313

nuclear domain 73-316
Proton-proton reaction 73-313
Protozoa 72-206
Psychiatry 73-287
aggression and violence 71 -66
Instant Intimacy 72-420
new developments 72-273
schizophrenia and vitamin deficiency
73-140

Psychic Phenomena 73-67
Psychoenergetics 73-81
Psychokinesis (PK) 73-63
Psychology 73-196
Instant Intimacy 72-410
organic foods 73-137
psychic phenomena 73-67
Tasaday tribe 73-56
values of art 73-353
Psychotechnolc^y 73-196
Psychotherapy 71 -148
drug abuse psychodrama il. 73-287
encounter techniques 72-413
Psychotropic drugs 71 -223
addiction 73-272; 72-285; il. 71 -234
pharmacology 71 -233
teenage deaths 72-276
Public health 73 -290: 72 -276
Chinese policies 73-45. 269
hazards of metals 73-360
new approaches to alcoholism 73-277
Public Health Service. U.S. (PHS)
computers in health centers 71-171
smallpox vaccination 73-272. 295
venereal disease 73-293
veterinary medicine 73-337
Public transportation: see Transportation
Puck, Theodore 73-91
Puebla. Mex, 71-111
Pueblo Indian society 71-145
earth navel il. 71-146
Pulsar 73-315
Pulse (phys.) 72-211
Polsewidth modulation propulsion
73-334
Purification

sewage disposal 72-372
PVC: see Polyvinyl chloride
Pyrolysis

waste disposal 72-351

Q

Quantum mechanics
chemical dynamics 73-205
collision of nuclear particles 71-263
heavy nuclei 7l -268
intramolecular dynamics 71 -155
structural chemistry 71 -163
Quantum theory 72-^9
amplitude analysis 73-314
Quarantine
astronauts 71 -124

Quarks 73-314. 396; 72-313; 71 -261
Quasar 72-192

QUEST (search language) 71 -212
Quinine

chemical synthesis 72-217

R

Rabes 73 -295: 71 -255
Fladar

crime detection 73-376

K.:!er Storms 72-118

rreteoro'ogy 73-193; 71-142

Oil po*’jtion detection 72-267

po'yethyleoe 72 -40i

storm wa'n r^gs 72-383

fe’escopic cbsc-vaticn of Mo's 73-167

tooograohy of Venus 73-223

vo’cano 71-47

ast'ono— y7t.i37

Ato'-.t Co''''--ss‘On resea»ch

71-3C7

cc-vee' ag#-' 71-350

71-155

C "uoton o' cr'’'-Ur f..nc1»on 72-65

electronic devices 71-165
emission by flowers 71 -153
fuel and power 72-259
Hodgkin's disease 73-88
laser research 73-216
measurement in the atmosphere

71- 142

molecular biology 73-302
Radical (chem.) 71 -158
Radiesthesia 73-60
Radio

communications satellites 71-120
mobile communications 73 -216. 231
Radioactivity
an forgery 72-95
crime detection 73-385
decay 71 -39
drugs 72-287
lunar intenor 72 -231
medical uses 71 -230
meteorite 71 -133
Nobel prizes 73-422
nuclear fusion 73-111
parapsychology 73-75
protons 72-317
Radio astronomy 72-192
Colonizing the Moon 72-13
interstellar molecules 71 -138
stellar radio sources 73-188
Radiocatboa dating", see Dating (archae.\
Radio frequency: see Frequency
Radioisotope 73-317; 71 -355
meteors 71-138
Radiometer 71 -1 ^
microwave 73-190
Radionics 73-80
Radio telemetry
medical information 72-279
Radio telescopes: see under Telescopes
Railroads 72-330

hauling of compacted refuse 72-351
mobile communications 73-231
superconductivity 72-320
unit trains 73-333
Ram 72-197
increased pH 73-230
Raleigh. Barry 72-48
Ralph. Elizabeth 71 -392
Rama (Indian swamO 73-78
Raman. Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata

72- 309

Raman spectroscopy 71-161
Rank. Otto 71 -331
Rapid transit system 71-280
alternatives to automobile use 73-236
Happaport Roy (anlhro.) 73-354
Rare earths (chem.) 71-135. 370
Rathjens. George 73-325
Rauschenberg. Robert
art and technology il. 73-359
ROA (Recommended Dietary Allowances)

73- 135
Reactor

Atomic Energy Commission 71 -355
breeder reactor: see Breeder reactor
mercury test il. 73-355
Reader. Desmond (anthro.) 71 -422
Receptors (med.) 73-300; 71 -232
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)

73-135

Reconnaissance satellites 73-174
Recyclir>g 73-233
lead for batteries 73 -359
tntium 73-125

Redfield. Robert (anthro.) 71 -416
Regeneration (zool.) 73-341
Rehovot Conferences (Israel) 71 -181, 350
Reik. Theodor 7l -253. if. 251
Reinforcement (psych.) 71-149
Repjvenation
hormones 72-64
Refativity 71 -95. 252
Religion 71-1C3. 332, 362
behavioral science 73-195
creationism 72-342
psychic phenomena 73-71
Tasaday tribe 73-G3
'■Religious Procession" (pa nt )
artfo'geryil 72-50
Re'-brandt
pamtirtg it. 71-29
Rem'SS'on

cance' deh^ffion 73 -?4
Remetr* sensing 72-lt2
Re-*few. Co* n (a'chae ) 73- 1GC
Rep'.cat on: see undfr ON*

Pepfes»"n!at-cn tnecry 73-104
Bepres*<cn (psych ) 71-72

Reproduction (biol.)
eukaryotes 72-207
insects 71-57
Reptiles 73-13; 71-291
wildlife extinction ils. 73-18. 19
Residues (pesticides) 71-54
Resin sealant
dental care 72-223
Resistance (biol.) 71-53
Resistance (elec.) 71-318
Resistive (Ohmic) healing 73-118
Respiration (bot) 71-109
Response (rel. tradition)
computers 71 -212. 332
Reston. James (j'oum.) 73-70
Retinal (visual chromophore) 73-301
Reverse transcription: see Transcription
R factor 72-297

Rh disease: see Erythroblastosis fetalis
Rhine, Joseph Banks (psych.) 73-73
Rhodopsin (biol.) 73-301
Rhyolites 71-33
Ribonucleic acid: see RfiA
Ribosome 73-93
Rice 71-197
new strains 73-44

Richardson, Elliot L. (secretary of HE\'/)
73-285

Richter scale 72-41
Rifampicin (drug) 73-93; 72-295
Rifamycin (drug) 71-224
RIR.tA (Rontgen Isotopic Fluorescent
Method of Anal>*sis) 72-165
Rift Valley (fault system) 71-382
Rift zones 71-44
Ring of fire 72-36
Ritual number 71-336
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) 72-293; 71-245
cancer 73-93

genetic information trgnscnpl/on a.nd
translation 72-305; 71 -241
Hodgkin's disease 73-295
malignant disease 72-292
messenger RNA: see Messenger RNA
reverse transcription 73-304
test-tube conception 73-401
zoological research 72-343
Roads and highways 72-332:71-280
pollution and safety prob'ems 73-331
Robert J. (Sillier Trophy (astronautics)
73-251

Roberts. Walter Oft 72-350
Robinson, Julia (math.) 71-215
Robotics 73-105
Robots 73-95
Rock 71 -35

lunar 72-14, 230:71-135. 175. iJs. 124.
354

Precambrian era 72-204
stress 72-45:71-187
Rockets and guided missiles
astronomy 72-187
Chinese policies 73-47
lunar explcrabon 72-28
nuclear propulsion 71-375
systems fuels 71-314
solar eclipse 71-133
Rogers. Carl (psych.) 72-410
Rokko Tunnel 71-2S3
Rontgen Isotopic Fluorescent Method of
Analysis (HIFMA) 72-185
Roosa. Stuart A. 72-177
Root (bob)

penscopic observation 73-203
Rosenthal, Stanley 72-125
Ross. Dcna'd (physic.) 71-89
Roth. Klaus (math ) 71-216
Rous. Francis Peyton 73-417: 71-253.
il. 252

Rous sa'coma virus 72-306
ROVSa Project 71 -375
Rowlandson, Thom.as
engrav.ng iJ. 71-32
Royal Ca'ol.nc Medco-Ch rurg cal
sttute 73-412

Rube”a (German measles) 72-274
Pub-d-jm carbenate 73-253
Pubccia: see Meas’es
F.'jckelshaus, Wi'iiam 0. 72-246
Rudbc'g. Erik (ffobe! pnze
412

RuV.avtthn kov. N kola 72-182
Ru' son. Project 71-202. 367
Rura'-u'tJn cuftu'fr 71-416
Rjssn'i. Ec't'and 'os ) 73-83
RjSS^ Lou '5 (5., J'. 72-275
Rjf^'er^ord, Ernes* (phy? ) 73-091
Pure, f.e-l P. 72-16

444

Index Sabin/Stirling

s

Sabin. Albert 71-331. il. 384
Sachs. Leo 71 -331. il. 334
Sachs. Robert G. (phys.) 73-397
Safeguard antiballistic missile system
systems analysis 73-324
Safety: see Accidents and safety
Sagittarius (astrort.) 71-133, 139
Saltonstall. Richard. Jr. 72-244
Sa/yuf (spacecraft) 73-177; 72-182
Sampsonov, Mikolai Nikolayevich 73-310
San Andress fault 73-228, ils. 226. 227;

72-35; 71-178
Sanitation 72-370
San Juan Project 73-192
Santorini, isl.. Gr.: see Thera
Sarcoidosis (disease) 72-297
Sarcoma

cancer definition 73-94
cell ils. 73-96

microbiofogicaf research 72-294
Samoff, David 73-310
Satellite band (biochemistry) 72-306
Satellite infrared spectrometer 71-142
Satellites and space probes 73-171 ; 72-
172. 182; 71-120
agricultural research 72-162
astronomy 72-187
atmospheric science 72-379
China 73-47, 231
Colonizing the Moon 72-14
communications 72-220. 323; 71-165
earth study 72-248
hydrological research 73-230
Mars 73-179

meteorology 73-190; 71-141
Killer Storms 72-121
nuclear explosion detection 73-227
photography 71-135
scientific developments in the UN

72- 431

Space technology and marine science

73- 263

volcanoes 71-45
weather forecasting 72-196
Saturn (launch vehicle) 72-28. 177
orbital workshop for Skylab program
73-177

Project Apollo 71-124
Ssx, Joseph 72-246
Scanning

mulii-spectra scanner 73-173
nuclear medicine 71 -230
Scanmrtg electron microscope (SEM)
73-283; 72-304; 71-183
crystallization of quartz ils, 73-223
Scarr.Salapatek. S.

hereditz-environment controversy 73-
193

SCEP (Study of Critical Environmental
Problems) (report) 72-248
Schistosomiasis (disease) 72-237
Schizophrenia 73-283
pharmacology 72-203
Vitamin deficiency 73-140
Schfesinger, James 73-245
Schmidt. Wolfgang (math.) 71 -217
Schneider. Oiefnch 72-395
Schneider. Hov/ard 72-251
Schottky-barner transistor 72-225
Schroeder. Henry A, 73-369
Schultz, George P.

science education 72-326
Schwab. V/. (anthro.) 71 -417
Science. General 73-319; 72-323;

71-271

freedom and ecological balance 71-292
honors 72-264; 71-210
The Humane Values of Science and
Technology 71-424
information dissemination systems
73-259

Science and Civilisation in China"
(Needham) 73-34

Science-Based Industries Development
Corp. 71-335
Science fiction 73-103
Scintillation counters 73-397; il. 71-374
Scorpions 71-290
Scott. Oa-/id R. 73-251; 72-177
Scorw Gerald (chem.) 72-203
Scottish Studies. School of 71-326
SCP (Single celt protein) 71-197
Scre-w«orm 71-61

Scfipps inspjution of Oceanography (La
Jolla, Calif.) 73-224

Scurvy 73-135
Scyllac method 73-124
Sea-floor spreading 73-224; 71-177
Sea lions 71-289
Seals 71-289
slaughter il. 71-189
Sears Tower (Chicago. III.) 72-168
Seat belts 71-280
Sea urchin 71-288
Seifea. Richard (arch.-eng ) 73-168
Seikan Tunnel (Japan) 71-283
Seismology 73-225; 71 -178
earthquakes 72-233
invention of seismograph 73-34
lunar 73-184; 72-12; 71-135. 176
predictions

Weizmann Institute 71-382
The Trembling Earth 72-35
volcano 71-39. 46
Seismometer 72-41: 71 -124. 13S
lunar exploration 73-184; 72-234
Sela. Michael 71-378
Selective Dissemination of Information

71-211

Selenium 72-251

Recommended Dietary Allowances
73-135

Sellers. V/illiam 73-191
SEM: see Scanning electron microscope
Semiconductor 71-270
communications 72-223; 71-168
technological advancement 72-401:
71-184

Senescence: see Aging
"Sensei and His People" (Sugihara)
71-146

Sensitivity training: see Encounter
groups
Sensors

archaeology 73-166
border patrol 73-376
oceanography 71 -256
Septum (physiol.) 71-81
Sequence analysis
antibody 71-228

SESER (electronic device) il. 71-186
Sevastyanov, Vitali 72-182
Sevin (Carbaryl) (chem.) 73-239
Sewage Disposal 72-368
architecture and engineering 72-171
polluting the oceans 72-267
treatment 71-155
v/ater purification 72-160
Sexual behavior
aggression and violence 71 -68
baboons 72-394
dogs 71-149
insects 71-60. 108
Seyfert galaxies 71-132
Sgaramella, V.

Iigases 73-305

Shadowmask (television) 71-185
Shahr-i-Sokhta (archae. site. Iran) 71-114
de*Shalit, Amos 71-253
Shapiro. I, (astron.) 72-192
Shatalov. Vladimir 72-182
Shepard, Alan B. 72-177. 230. il. 178;
71-126

Shipping 72-335
container barges 71 -281
fuel and pov/er 72-132
LNG 73-335
Shirfey. David A. 73-256
Shockley. William (phys ) 73-423. il. 326
genetics and racial differences 73-328
Shohaku, Soga 72-91
Short takeoff and landing (STOL) air-
craft 73-330; 72-332; 71-279
Shreeve. Jeanne M. 73-253
Shuttle transportation spacecraft: see
Space shuttle

SI (International System of Units) 73-146
Sickle-cell anemia 73-274. 297; 71-243.
il. 272

Siebenmann. Larry (math.) 72-271
Siegbahn. Kai 73-2t3
Siegel. C. L. (math ) 71-216
Silicates

interstellar matter 72-189
lunar igneous process 71-176
volcano 71-38
Silicon 71-167
Silicon carbide 72-403
Sliver

photography 73-311; 72-312; 71-259
Silver iodide

cloud seeding 72-125, 197. 3S3;

71-143

Silverman. Sol. Jr. (dental sci.) 73-283
Similarity, Law of
magic 71-328
Simon, Herbert 73-104
Simpson. Ruth DeEtte (Dee) 71-112
Singer. S Fred 72-329
Single cel) protein (SCP) 71-197
Single photon counting 72-212
Sipunculid worm 71-288
Sinus (star) 71-390
Sjoberg. Gideon (anthro ) 71 -419
SkclI. P. S 73-211
Skin

immunological problems 72-275
Skinner, 8. F (psych )
tfehavior management 73-196
social manipulation theories 73-327
Skylab (Apollo Applications Program;

AAP) 73-177. 263; 72-180; 71-127.
256

SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator
Center) 71-321
Sleep and dreams
psychic phenomena 73-68
Tasaday tribe 73-63
Slipher, Vesto Melvin 71-253
Smallpox 73-296: 72-274; 71-221
epidemic diseases 73-271
scientific developments in the UN

72- 427

Smith, K. U Jr. 73-260
Smith. Tony (sculptor)
art and technology il. 73-352
Smithsonian Astrophys/caf Observatory
71-138

Smithsonian Institution 72-200
Smoking 73-235. 283
SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary
Pov/er) 71-365

SNG: see Synthetic natural gas
Snow 72-197
increased pH 73-230
Social science 73-194; 72-104; 71-413
Aggression and Violence 71-67
behavior control 73-196
encounter groups 72-41 1
folklore 71-324
food programs 73-241
freedom and ecological balance
71-292

honors 73-258

information dissemination systems

73- 259

nev/ research 73-320
Population Policy: Stemming the
Human Tide 71-400
scientific research 71-271
sexual mores and venereal disease
73-290

Tasaday tribe 73-58
unemployment 73-426
use of computers 73-221; 71-170
values of an and technology 73-351 ;
71-427

Society for Medicine and Human Values
73-282

Sodium fluoride
dental care 72-228
Sodium hydroxide 73-363
Sognnaes. Reidar F. 73-203
Soil 72-145

lunar 72-14. 184. 230; 71-135. 176
Solar energy 72-140
Solar system: see Sun
Solar wind 71-124, 135
Solar year 71-330
Soleri. Paolo (architect) iJ. 72-169
Solheim. Wilhelm (archae.) 72-163;
71-112

Solid-state physics 72 -320 ; 71-269
communications 71-168
electronics 72-406: 71-184
Somatic cell genetics 71 -227
fusion techniques 73-306
mutation theory 72-83
S193 (satellite) 73-263
Sonfist. Alan

art and technology il. 73-351
Sothic cycle 71-391
"Scutside" (Hannerz) 71-147
Sound (physics) 71-184
Sound spectrograph
crime detection 73-377
Source Bock for Science Teaching
(UNESCO) 71-162
South Pole 71-178

Southward. Eve C. (marine zoo!.) 73-339
Soybean protein 73-242; 72-25t; 71-197

Soyuz (spacecraft) 73-177; 72-182;
71-128

Spacecraft: see Satellites and space
probes

Space exploration: see Astronautics and
space exploration

Space shuttle 73-177; 72-30; 71-128
earth orbital missions 72-176
transportation ils. 72-28. 29
Space station 71-128
Space tug (spacecraft) 72-31. il. 33
Spark chamber 73-397
Specialization (knowledge) 71-429
Specialized Carrier Decision 73-231
Special relativity 73-313
Spector, Sydney 73-290
Spectrograph

Far Ultraviolet Camera 73-175
high-resolution mass 73-213
Spectrometer 71 -129. 142
atmospheric observation 73-190
lunar surface 72-179
Martian atmosphere 73-180
Spectrometry, Mass 73-301
chemical ionization method 73-206;

71- 161

Spectrophotometer, ils 73-243. 385
Spectroscopy 73-208; 71-161
art forgery 72-93
crime detection 73-386
electron x-ray 73-213
intramolecular dynamics 71-157
Sinus B 73-188
Sperm 73-401. i). 400
Spiegelman. Sol 73-304
Spin (physics)
chemical dynamics 72-212
electron spin 71-317
valence nucleons 72-317
Spinel 71-181
Spin immunoassay 72-287
Spleen 71-221
Squalene 71-160
Squid 71-288

SST: see Supersonic transport
Siamler. Jeremiah 73-142
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

(SLAC) 73-314; 71-321
Stanley. Wendell Meredith 72-309
Stans, Maurice H. 73-145
Staphylococcus aureus (Staph) 73-294
Star (astron.)
occultation 73-187
radiation of energy 72-187
Stare, Fredrick J. 73-134
Starfish 71-258
States (phys.)

collision data 73-314
State Scientific and Technological Com-
mission (China) 73-37
Stay Time Extension Module (Stem)

72- 20

Steady state theory 71-294
Steam 72-140
volcano 71-38
Steel 73-372
construction
bearing walls 71-116
manufacturing
air pollution il. 72-348
Steen, Jan
painting il. 71-29
Stem, Larry 73-288
Stemach operation 72-84
Steinbrugge. Karl B. (engm ) 72-40
Steliarator (device) 73-119
Stelson. Paul H. 73-211
Stem (Stay Time Extension Module)

72- 20

Stenosis 71 -87
surgery il. 71-85
Steptoe. Patrick 73-328, 405
Stenlity (reproduction)
biological pest control 72-341
insect control 73-161; 71-61. il. 62
Stenlization 72-273
unwanted pets 72-333
Stern. H. 73-306
Stern. Otto 71-253
Stem. Ralph 72-230
Steroids 71-161

Stethorus punctum (Ladybird beetle)

73- 342

Stethoscope 71 -225
Stick slip (gecl.) 72-45
Sti'bestrol; see Oisthytsti'bestrol
Stillman. Irwin 73-1M
Stirling. Matthew (archae) 73-f65

445

Index STOL/Ui

STOL: see Short takeoff and landing
aircraft

Stomata (bot) 73-201
Stormfury. Project 73-192; 72-124;

71-143

Storms 72-115
hail 72-382

meteorological satellites 72-175
Pakistan 72-236

weather forecasting 73-189; 72-196
Storms, Ocean of (moon) 71-136
age of samptes 72-14
lunar geology 71-176
Storr. Anthony (psychiatrist) 71-66
Slratoscope (balloon) 71-132
Streptokinase (enzyme) 72-21 1
Streptovaricin 73-93
Stress

botany il. 73-82
geophysics 71-179
psychology il. 73-83; 71-72
Stroke (med.) 73-290
Stromboli, volcano. Italy 71-36
Struever. Stuart 73-165
Study of Critical Environmental Problems
(SCEP) (report) 72-248
Sturtevant. Alfred Henry 71-253
Stutzel. Hermann (cryptanalyst) 71-357
Substrates (biol.) 71-243
Sugar 72-250. 277
Sugihara. Yoshie 71-146
Sulfur

fuel and power 72-256
pollution 72-132; 71-198
sources in earth’s atmosphere il.

73-190
Sulfur dioxide
pollution 73-249; 71-156
Sumerian civilization 71-114
Sun 72-190

observation during eclipse 71-133
OSO 73-182
solar corona il. 73-184
solar observatory 73-177
source of fuel and power 72-140
thermonuclear reactions 73-113; 71-
371

Sunyar. Andrew 73-319
Supercold; see Cryogenics
Supercomputer 73-220; 72-225
Superconductivity 72-320, 404* 71 -269.
318

nuclear fusion 73-126
Super 8 system (phot.) 71 -260
Superfluidity 71-317
Supernova 72-192
Superplastic metals 72-405
Supersonic transport (SST) 73-330
atmospheric sciences 72-194
environmental sciences 72-247
federal finance 72-331
new design il. 73-329
skin cancer 72-277
solar radiation 72-329
Superstition 71-330
Supertransuranic elements 72-319
Superwater: see Anomalous water
Surface elastic v/aves (phys ) 71-184
Surface plasmon 72-322
Surgery 73-271; 71-235
acupuncture anesthesia 73-268
bone grafts 73-283
cancer treatment 73-89
career and education 71-238
clean room technique il 73-270
heart 71 -84
nursing il. 73-285
temporal lobe epilepsy 73-288
transplants: see under Transplants
Surtscy. volcano. Iceland 71-35
Surveyor (spacecraft) 71-124, ii. t23
Svedberg. Theodor 72-309
Svedbcrg uni! 72-205
S-vamp fever of horses (Equine infectious
anemia) 71-2B6

Swed’und. J D (astron\ 72-193
Sm.gert. Jchn L . Jf 71-126
S».Ofd'ish 73-355
r^cfcu'y 72-277
pe-5* tide res dues 72-251
Sjmpa'hc’iC r-i3Tic 71-323
Symphenie (sa-f^'-i'e) 73-172; 72- 174;

71- 121

Synapse (nArvous system) 71-163
S»nch'cvcn. $ee PaM cie nccc'erator
Sy''Ch'o'ron rad .i* cn 72-321; 71-132
c n.i'u»a! gas (5*.’G} 73-203;

72- 7S5. 71-20t

Synthetics 73-208; 72*216; 71-159
architecture and engineering 72-170
diamonds 71-154
fuel and power 72-135
gas development 73-248
Materials from the Test Tube 72-396
membrane 72-285
research and development 73-32
speech synthesis 72-222
waste disposal 72-363
yeast gene 71-246
Syphillis 72-277

Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power
(SNAP) 71-365
Systole (physiol.) 71-81
Szabo, B. J. (geol.) 71-398

T

Taal, volcano, Philippines 71-45
TACTIC CTechnical Advisory Committees
to Influence Congress) 73-325
Tactical communications satellite
(TACOMSAT) 72-173; 71-121
TACV (Tracked air-cushion vehicle) 73-
335

TAP (Tumor angiogenesis factor) 73-92
Tago-Sato-Kosaka, Comet (1969g) 71-
131, 136

Taillibert, Roger (arch.) 72-169
Tamm. Igor Evgenyevich 72-310
Tangent vectors (math.) 73-265
Tantrum (psych.) il. 71-148
Tardigrade (zoo!.)

cryptobiosis ils. 73-340
Tarot card ils. 73-68, 69
Tart. Charles T. (psych.) 73-74
Tasaday, The 73-50
Taxation 71-199. 409
Taxonomy 71-154
Teach-in 71-191
Technetium-99m 71 -231, 372
Technical Advisory Committees to In-
fluence Congress (TACTIC) 73-
325

Technological Art 73-346
Technology assessment 73-323; 71-292
Teckart (technological art) 73-346
Tectonics 73-224; 72-45; 71-178
Teeth (anat.)

decay: see under Canes. Dental
dentistry: see under Dentistry
paleontology 71-290
TEL (Tetraethyl lead) 73-369
Tel Beer-sheba site (Israel)
Assyrian-Babylonian cylinder seal il.
73-165

Telemetry 72-183
Telephone 72-220; 71-165
communications 73-214
satellite circuits 73-171
Specialized Carrier Decision 73-231
transoceanic cable 71 -120
Telescopes 72-168; 71-140
radio telescope

future use on the moon il. 72-23
interstellar gas 72-168
Robert R, McMath solar telescope 71 -
118

Skylab 73-177; 71-128
VLA radio telescope 73-184
Television 72-119; 71-165
aggression and violence 71-75
architecture and building 72-167
cable systems 73-218
cassettes 73-312

communications satellites 73-171;

72-173; 71-120
crime detection 73-376
electronics industry 71-185
honors 73-257

international communications 73-231
medical counseling 72-273
robotics 73-106
spacecraft transmission 72-179
transmitting antennas 73-168
TEM: SCO Transmission electron micro*
scope

Temin. Howard M. if. 73-257
cancer vtruses 73-92: 72-292. 300 306

honors 73-252
Tcmperalure

effect on ammo acids 72-304
free atoms 73-211
ltjn.if 73-165; 72-22
Mars 73-160; 71-136

polymerizatio.n 72-402
profiles taken by satellite 71-142
storms 72-116, 382
supercold: see Cryogenics
superconductivity 72-321 ; 71-269
use of thermography 72-278
Template

RNA replication 73-304; 72-300, 306
Tennessee Valley Authority (TV A) 73-
250

Tepe Yahya (archae. site, Iran) 71-114
Teslltular leminizalion ITim) 73-307
Test-tube Conception 73-401
experimental embryology 73-328, 341
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) 72-285
Tetrodotoxm 73-209
*Tewa World, The" (Ortiz) 71-145
Tfm (Testicular feminization) 73-307
T-groups: see Encounter groups
Thalidomide 73-402; 71-233
Thanatofogy 73-282
Theorell, Axel Hugo (biochemist) 73-419
Thera (Santorini), isl., Gr. 73-164; 71-
386

Therapeutics
chemotherapy: see Drugs
child abuse 72-283
psychotherapy: see Psychotherapy
use of ultrasonics 72-243
Thermal collision 73-206
Thermal pollution: see under Pollution
Thermodynamics, Laws of 71-99, 314
Thermography 72-278
Thermoluminescence dating: see Dating
(archae.)

Thermoluminescent clock 71-394
Thermometer, Clinical 71-225
Thermonuclear energy: see Nuclear
energy

Theta waves (brain) 73-78
Thinking and problem solving 73-104
time 71-101

Thoday. John M. 73-408
Thompson, Travis 71 -71
Thoms, William 71 -324
Thorium 71-267
Thorp, Bobbin 73-338
Thrtftaxodon ^tepUle) 72-233
Thrombocytopenia 72-73
Thymine 73-305; 72-307
Thymus gland 71-229
Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH)

72- 215

Tidal power 72-141
Tides 73-262

Tiger, Lionel (anthro.) 71-145
Tiller. William A. 73-81
Tiltmeters 72-47
Time 71-94
dating methods 71-388
subatomic level 71 -371
•'Time" (period.)

psychotechnology 73-198
Time*sharing 71-170
Tinguely, Jean (sculptor)
art-making machine il. 73-348
Ttselius. Arne Wilhelm Kaurin (chem.)

73- 310. 412

Tissue (anat.) 71-239, 382
oral diagnostic techniques 73-283:

72- 242

storage at low temperatures 71 -314
tooth transplant II. 72-228
transplant rejection
antigen-antibody system 71 -379
heart 71 -91
Titanium 71-135
Titanium tetrafluoride
dental care 72-228
Tokamak project 73-119; 72-392
'Token Economy, The" (Ayllon and
Azrin) 71-149

Tomb

archaeology 73-166; 72-165
Tonantzintia 256 (astron.) 72-193
Toohig. Father Timothy E. (phys.) 73-396
Tooth decay: sec Canes, Dental
Topology (math.) 73 -264; 72-269:

71-163

Tornadoes 72-116. 197
Tosi. M. (archae.) 71-114
Townes. Charles H.

Nobel prizes 73-422
Toxicity (drugs) 72-292; 71-234
Toxoplasmosis 73-337
Tracer, Rad’oaclivo 71 -370
Tracked air-cushton vehicle (TACV)

73- 335

Tracker dog disease (Canine hemor-
rhagic fever) 71 -285
Tracking (birds) 73-340
Traffic control
aircraft 71-123
roads and highways il. 73-331
computers 73-382; 71-171
Training groups; see Encounter groups
Trajectory

space probes il. 72-184
Tranquillity. Sea of 71-124, 135
age of soil sampies 72-14
geologic data 71-176
Transcription (microbiology) 71-241
reverse transcription 73-93, 304, il,
305; 72-292. 306
provirus hypothesis 72-300
Transfer factor 72-275
Transfer-RNA (tRNA) 71-246
Transistor 72-226, 401
Transit (spacecraft) 71 -123
Translation (microbiology) 73-304;
71-241

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
73-213:71-187

Transoceanic telephone cable 71-120, 165
Transpiration 72-303
Transplants 71-235, 239
determination of donor's death 73-281
effect on life span 72-87
embryo 73-407
heart 71-90

immunological problems 72-275
new developments 71 -221
pancreas 73-271
paramedical personnel 73-284
tooth root resorption 72-229
Transportation 73-329; 72-330; 71 -278
automobile: see under Motor vehicles
aviation: see under Aviation
natural gas 73-248
railroads: see under Railroads
space vehicles 72-33, ils. 28, 29
superconductivity 71 -269
tunnels 73-170

Transposition of the great vessels (med.)

71- 86

Transuranic elements 72-318
Tree-ring dating: see Dating (archae.)
Tremor (volcanic) 71-46
’Trends in Integrated Science"

(UNESCO) 72-240
Trepanning (Trephining) 71-26
TRH (Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone)

72- 215

Trtassic Period 72-233
Trichogramma (biol.) 71 -50
Trilobites 72-339
Tritiated water 72-304
Tritium 73-112
tRNA (Transfer-RNA) 71-246
Tropical Experiment 71-141
Tsunami 73-225: 72-37
Tuberculosis

animal disease programs 73-337
ethambutal hydrochloride 71 -224
home treatment 72-275
TUBEXPRESS system 72-332
Tubular design (arch.) 73-166. il. 170
Tuchman, Maurice (curator) 73-350
Tumor (Neoplasm) 72-292
cancer definition 73-94
Tumor angiogenesis factor (TAP) 73-92
Tunafish 73-365
Tungsten 71-267
Tunnels 71-283; 73-170
Tu.144 (Soviet SSTl 73 - 330; 72-331
Turbine engines 73-331; 72-332
Turing. Alan (mathematician) 73-98
Tuttle. Russell (zool.) 71 -291
TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) 73-250
2. 4. 5-T (herbicide) 71-193
Tylor. Sir E. B. 71-327
Typo*L oscillations 71-135
Typesetting

computer system 71 -212
development In China 73-34
phototypesetting 72-243
Typhoons 72-120

U

UFOs (Unidentified Fl/mg Obj<*ct5)

73-Cfl

Uhuru (satellite) 72-191
Ui.J 73-341

Index Ultrasonic/Zweifel

Ultrasonic devices
developing fetus 72-69
diagnostic techniques 72-242
Ultraviolet light
art iorgery 72-92
dental research 71-133
Ultraviolet radiation 72-382
botany 73-200; 72-203
polymerization 72-403
probing the properties m solids 72-321
replication 71-247
satellite research 73-187; 72-168;

71- 129

Umbellula (rnanne organism) il 71 -287
UMP: see Upper Mantle Project. Inter-
national
UNESCO

cultural anthropology 72-200
preservation of archaeological sites

72- 163

science teaching 72-230, 424; 71-181
UNfSiST 73-258
Ungar. Georges 72-215
Ungulates 72-147

Unidentified flying objects (UFOs) 73-68
Uniform Anatomical Gifts Act (1968, U.S.)

71-235

UNISIST (world science information
system) 73-258
United Nations 72-424
brain dram 73-425
forests in Philippines 73-54
Stockholm conference 73-239
U.S. Steel Foundation Award in Molec-
ular Biology 73-252
Universe: see Cosmogony: Cosmology
Universities Research Association 73-
394

UPE (Urine polyelectrolytes) 71 -110
Upper Mantle Project, International 72-
234:71-181
Uranium 72-134
atomic v/eight 73-316; 71-267
dating method 71-398
isotope production 73-214; 71 -265.
364

Uranium fission clock 71-398
Urbanization 73-196
The Anthropologist Goes to the City

71-413

computer studies of housing 71-171
effects of industry on weather 73-192
environmental sciences 71-188
origins 71-113
pollution problems il. 72-350
reversal of migration trend 73-232
sewage disposal 72-369
transportation 73-334; 72-336
y/aste disposal 72-354
Urea

Chinese manufacture 73-44
protein metabolism 73-297
Urine potyefecfrolytes (UPE) 71-110
Urokinase (enzymes) 72-211, il. 210
Urolithiasis 71-110

USDA: see Agriculture. U.S. Department
ot

Uvnas, Borje 73-414

V

Vaccination 71-221
animal disease 73-336; 72-337; 71-
234

Chinese policies 73-46
matignar^t disease 73-96: 72-294
Marek’s disease 73-160
measles 72-274
perinatal medicine 72-70
rabies 73-295
smallpox 73-272
Vacuum

e'ectron microscope 71-186
hot-p!as*na experiment 73-115
potential for lunar rnariutactunT)g 72-
16

Vampire bat 73-297
Van der V/aals molecules 73-216; 71 -
162

Van Meegeren. Han (pamt.) 72-96
Van Slyke, Donald D. 72-310
VEE: see Venezue'an equine encephalo*
myelitis

Vegetable proteins: see Protem

Vela (satellite) 73-174; 72-176
Venera (spacecraft) 73-183; 72-182
Venereal disease 73-290; 71-220
public health 73-272; 72-276
poster iJ. 73-292

Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
(VEE) 73-336; 72-337
vaccine 73-296
Ventricle (heart) 71 -80
Venus (planet) 73-223
satellites and space probes 73-'l83:

72- 182

Vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)
aircraft 73-330; 71-279
Very large array (VI_A) (radio telescope)

73- 184

Very-tong-baseline-inlerferometer
(VLBO 72-192

Veterans Administration (U.S.)

dental research 71-173
Veterinary Medicine 73-336; 72-336;

71-284

"Vice Lords, The'* (Keiser) 71-148
Videotaping
crime detection 73-380
Video telephone 72-220; 71-220
Vierendeel truss (arch.) 72-169
Vieth, Rolf 72-210
Viking (spacecraft)

Martian exploration 73-184
Vincent, Joan 72-200
Violence: see Aggression and violence
Virgo A (galaxy) (M87) 71-132
Viroid 73-160
Virus

cancer 73-85, 302. i(s. 95. 96; 72-290;
71-380

dental caries 71-174
effect on cells 72-300. 305
galactose 73-294
hepatitis 72-275
Lassa (ever 71 -220
microbiological research 72-294;
71-238

reverse transcription 73-304
fhinovirus 44 73-135
smallpox 73-272

veterinary medicine 73-336; 71-284
Vitamin

B„ synthesis 73-208; 72-216: 71-161
common cold 72-277
diet requirements 73-132
foods and nutrition 73-241 ; 72-250;

71- 194

self-medication and fads 73-270
"Vitamin C and the Common Cold"
(Pauling) 72-277
foods and nutrition 72-252
VLA (Very large array) (radio telescope)

73-184

VLBI (Very-long-baseline*ir»terferometer)

72- 192

Vofsi. David 71-385
Volcanology 71-34
dating methods 71-388
Hawaii 73-229
lead dispersal 73-363
FJartian 73-187

Volkov, Vladislav Nikolayevich 73-178;

72-310

Von Bekesy. Georg (phys.) 73-311
Von Euler. Ulf 73-419
VTOL; see Vertical takeoff and landing
aircraft

W

V/addington,J. 73-200
V/ade. C. M. (astron.J 73-180
Walker, P. M. B. 72-307
Walker, R. M. (phys.) 71-399
Wallace, Anthony (anthro) 71-147
Wallace. Robert E. 72-40
Wallenberg, Marcus 73-418
Wanke! engine 73-331
War 71 -75. 145

V/arburg. Otto Heinrich 72-310
Warhol. Andy

art and technology »L 73-357
V/arner. W. Lfoyd (anthro.) 71-421
Waste Disposal 72-3S4
chemical treatment71-755
closed systems 73-235

domestic animals 72-337
Illinois Centra! Railroad 72-333
polluting the oceans 73-362; 72-267
recycling 73-161 ; 72-245
The Senses Besieged 72-344
Washing Our Dirty Water 72-368
water pollution 73-20
Watanabe. Naotune (Japanese archae.)

71 - 395

Water

anomalous 71 -164

effect of chemicals on insects 73-341

engineering 73-169

extraction of deuterium 73-126

hydrological research 73-229, il. 191;

72- 235
Israel 71 -380

methyl mercury 73-362
photosynthesis 73-201
pollution: see under Pollution
scientific sewage disposal 72-368
solar system
Mars 73-180; 71 -130
moon 72-20. 180; 71-120
Watson. James (biol.) 71-239
Waves 72-267
Weapons (nuclear) 71 -362
Weather: see Atmospheric sciences
Weed killers: see Herbicides
Weevil, ifs. 71 -58, 59
boil weevil: see under Boll weevil
Weinberg, Steven 73-325
Weisgal, Meyer 71 -377
Weisstein, N. 73-199
Weizmann, Chaim 71 -377
Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel)

71- 376
Whales

songs 71 -289

unregulated slaughter 73-17
Wheat

beetle control 73-161
earfy food production 71-112
insect pests 71 -57
new strains 73-44
photosynthetic efficiency 71 -109
Whipple. Fred 73-252
White, Gilbert Fowler73-254
White, Philip L. 73-138
White dwarf (star) 72-190; 71-320
spectrum 73-188

White House Conference on Aging

73- 243

Whitten, Charles A. 72-46
WHO; see World Health Organization
Wickter, Wolfgang 72-393
Wiesef. T. N. (pbysioJ.) 73-199
Wigner, Eugene Paul 73-256
Wikfer, Abraham 72-266
Wildlife 73-12
Wilkins, M. H. F. 72 - 299
William C, Menmnger Dream Laboratory
(Brooklyn. N.Y.) 73-75
Wilson. Carroll L. 73-191
Wilson. Monica Hunter (Hunter. Monica)
(anlbro.)71-416

Wilson. Robert R. (phys.) 73-392
Wilson. T. R. S. 73 -262
Wind 72-116:71-143
Windings (elec.) 71-321
V/inokur, George 73-288
V/irlh, Louis (anthro.) 71-418
Wisconsin glacial stage
La Brea tar pits 72-52
Witches Its. 73-70-72
V/itthofl. John (archae.) 71-112
V/MO; see World Meteorological Organi-
zation

Wohlsteher. Albert 73-324
Wolf. Enc (anthro.) 71-146
V/ood. John 73-366
Woods Hole (Mass.) Oceanographic
Institute 71-245. 257
V/oodward. Robert B. 73-208
Worden. Alfred M. 73-251; 72-177
World Congress on the Prevention of
Alcoholism 73 -278
*T/orld Dynamics" (Forrester) 73-234,
326

World Health Organizat-on (V/HO)
mercury 73-364

scientific devefopmencs in the UN

72- 424

V/ortd Meteorological Organization
(WMO) 72-14:71-141

scientific developments in the UN
72-424

weather forecasting 72-380
World Trade Center (New York) 71 -115,
il. 116

World Weather Watch (WWW) 72-14;

71- 141

scientific developments in the UN

72- 429

weather forecasting 72-379
Worsley, Thomas R. 73-224
W particle (Boson) (phys.) 72-315
Wyman, L. E. 72-54

X

Xanthophyll

derived from alfalfa 71-110
Xenon (gas) 73-211
X rays 71-261

analysis of lunar surface 72-179
art forgery 72-92
astronautics 71 -132
astronomical experiments 72-191
crime detection 73-378
diffraction 73-212. 299, 301; 72-299
protein structure 71 -243
effect of the sun 72-302
paramedical personnel 73-284
probing the properties in solids 72-321

Y

Yamashiro. Donald H. 72-218
Yanofsky, Charles 73-255
Yeast

gene synthesis 71-246
Yeda Research and Development Co.
Ltd, 71 -385

Yeliseyev. Afexei 72-182
Yin and yang (philos.) 73-139
Yoder. Hatten S.. Jr. 73-254
Young, John W. 73-175, i). 178
Young, William
art forgery 72-93
Yucatan

rura)*urban culture 71-417

z

Zen

macrobiotics 73-138
meditation 73-67
Zero-population-growth 71-407
Zinc

art forgery 72-95
cadmium content 73-372
enzyme action 71 -243
nutrition 72-251:71-196
Recommended Dietary Allov/ances

73-135
Zirconium

lunar surface material 71-135
Zond (spacecraft) 72-185
Zoology 73-338; 72-338; 71-286
animal expenmentation 73-289
animal psychology i1. 73-237; 72-202;
71-149

animal tracking by satellite 71-123
conservation 73-13
developing fetus 72-63
early domestication 72-165:71-112
effects of early malnutrition in animals

71- 195

effects of narcotics 72-286
Grasslands of the V/odd 72-144
insecticide residues 71-54
insemination, arliftcial 73-162
La Brea tar pit 72-53
life spans 72-73
marine bacteria 71 -245
monkeys at play it, 73-193
nutritional research 73-243
pesticides 72-266
radiation effects 71-373
visual excitation studies 73-301
wildlife extinction ils. 73-12-26;

72- 247

Zooplankton (zoo!.) 72-266
Z-pinch (Axial) technique 73-123
Zweifel. Paul F. 73-256

447

Acknowledgments

2 Photograph by Ed Cornachio

6 Photographs by {top, left) Brian Brake from Rapho Guillumette; (top, right)
Dan Morrill; (center, left) courtesy. Unimation, Inc.: (bottom, left) Observer,
Transworld Features; (bottom, nght) Carlo Bavignoli. Life Magazine ©
Time Inc.

10-11 Illustration by Lido Lucchesi; photographs by Richard Keane
31 Photograph by Marc Riboud from Magnum
66 Photographed by Bill Arsenault
93 Illustration by George Suyeoka
98 Photographed by Richard Fegley
128-143 Illustrations by Phil Renaud
146-157 Illustrations by Dave Beckes

159 Photographs by (from top to bottom) courtesy, Dr. John H. Crowe, University
of California, Davis; courtesy, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory: Dmitn
Kessel; Leonard Kamsier. Medical V/orld News
179, 183, 190, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211.

212, 217, 226, 242, 291. 299, 301, 305
314, 318 Illustrations by Dave Beckes
186, 197, 233, 267, 295, 317
330, 339 Illustrations by Victor F. Seper. Jr.

361 Photographs by Dan Morrill

365 Illustration by Dave Beckes
398-399 Photographed by Bill Arsenault
404-405 Illustrations by Dave Beckes